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Abstract Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smmith) is one of the major migratory pests warned by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It has been successfully invaded sugarcane and corn in Jinggu, Longchuan, Gengma, Menghai, Yingjiang, Lancang of Yunan Province, China. In view of the great variety of hosts, wide range of habitats and strong migration ability, S. frugiperda has the potential of causing catastrophic threats to sugarcane production. In this paper, we made a systematic introduction to the morphological and biological characteristics of S. frugiperda, analyzed its occurrence situations and occurrence trends in Yunnan of China and other countries around the world, and proposed the control strategies and measures of ecological regulation and control, natural enemies protection and utilization, biological control, pesticide control and adults trapping based on the outbreak characteristics of S. frugiperda and the actual sugarcane production in low latitude plateau areas.
Key words Low latitude plateau areas; Spodoptera frugiperda; Occurrence; Dynamic monitoring; Prevention and control measures
Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smmith) is one of the major migratory pests warned by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)［1］. A member of Noctuidae, Lepidoptera, it is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas and it mainly does damage to crops such as corn, rice, sugar cane and tobacco［2］. There is still no report on S. frugiperda doing damage to sugarcane in In China and other countries and regions in Asia. Recently, S. frugiperda has been found to be harmful in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and China in Asia, and there is a trend of further spread and invasion［3-4］. Since January 11, 2019, when it was discovered that it invaded Chinas southwestern Yunnan from Myanmar and caused certain damage to winter maize, it has settled in China and has begun to multiply［5］. At present, it has found to have done damage to the sugarcane and corns in the sugarcane-producing areas in Jinggu County of Puer City, Longchuan County of Dehong Prefecture, Gengma County of Linyi City, Menghai County of Xishuangbanna, Yingjiang County of Dehong Prefecture, and Lancang County of Puer City in Yunan Province. In view of its heterogeneous feeding habits, wide area of suitable habitats and the rapid migratory spread, S. frugiperda has the potential of causing catastrophic threats to sugarcane production. In this paper, we made a systematic introduction to the morphological and biological characteristics of S. frugiperda, analyzed its occurrence situations and occurrence trends in Yunnan of China and other countries around the world, and proposed the control strategies and measures of ecological regulation and control, natural enemies protection and utilization, biological control, pesticide control and adults trapping based on the outbreak characteristics of S. frugiperda and the actual sugarcane production in low latitude plateau areas, with the aim to carry out real-time monitoring and scientific control of S. frugiperda. Morphological Characteristics and Biological Habits
Morphological characteristics
There are 4 stages for S. frugiperda, namely, adult, egg, larva and pupa［6］.
Adult: the adult S. frugiperda is stout, gray-brown in color with wingspan of 32-38 mm. The female adult has the color of fore wings varied from gray to gray-brown, while the male adults are darker with dark spots and light-colored dark lines. The hind wings are white, and the wing veins are brown and transparent. The female adult has round fore wings of light color, and the pterostigma rises distinctly at the gray end (Fig. 1D).
Egg: The eggs are dome-shaped, 0.4 mm in diameter and 0.3 mm high. Usually 100-200 eggs are stacked in blocks, and the eggs are covered with scales. They are light green or white at the time of initial production and gradually brown before hatching (Fig. 1A).
Larva: the larvae have 6 instars, occasionally 5. The eggs are green when initially hatched with black lines and spots. When growing, the larvae are still green or become pale yellow, each with a black back centerline and valve line. The mature larvae are 35-50 mm in length, with yellow-white inverted Y-shaped spots on the head, and black-backed scallops with native bristles. There are 4 dark spots in square arrangement at the end of the abdomen. Older larvae are mostly brown, and there are also individuals with black or green color, with the body length 30-50 mm. The heads are black, brown or yellow with with white or yellow inverted Y-shaped spots. The larvae have many longitudinal stripes, and the midline of the back is yellow. There is one yellow vertical stripe on each side of the back midline, and beside the stripe are black and yellow vertical stripes. The most obvious feature of the S. frugiperda larvae is that there are 4 black spots in a square arrangement at the end of the abdomen, and the head has a distinct inverted Y-shaped stripe (Fig. 1B, the parts in the circles are the inverted Y-shaped yellow vertical stripes in the head, and the 4 black spots in a square arrangement at the end of the abdomen).
Pupa: the pupa is oval in shape with reddish brown color of 14-18 mm long and 4.5 mm wide. The mature larvae use the shallow soil layer as pupa chamber after falling to the ground, and the pupa pupate in the cocoon packed with sand.
Biological habits
Varied host varieties. S. frugiperda is a polyphagous pest that is most liable to do damage to economically important crops such as corn, rice, sugar cane, and tobacco. Wide range of habitats. S. frugiperda is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the America and is widely distributed in the American continent. Because there is no diapause phenomenon, in the original distribution area of the Americas, the perennial breeding area of S. frugiperda can go south to Lapanpa, Argentina, and the northern border can reach Florida and southern Texas. However, S. frugiperda can only survive the winter in the temperate South Florida and Texas, and thus in each spring, the adults begin to migrate to the north from the wintering places and then do damage to the temperate planting areas. In the late summer, S. frugiperda can move north to Ontario and Quebec in Canada［7］. S. frugiperda can reproduce around the year in Central and South America as well as most of the newly invaded Africa where the climate, host conditions are suitable［8］.
Strong migratory ability. S. frugiperda adults can migrate for long-distance in certain direction with high winds［9］. Adults usually move 100 km before spawning, and if the wind direction and speed are appropriate, the migration distance can be longer.
Overview of Occurrences
Overview of occurrences in foreign countries
S. frugiperda is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas and is widely distributed in the American continent. At the beginning of 2016, S. frugiperda was first discovered invaded in western Africa［10］and exploded into disasters. In April 2017, 12 African countries reported the invasion of S. frugiperda; in January 2018, S. frugiperda invaded 44 countries in Africa［11］. S. frugiperda invaded India in May 2018, and spread throughout India in 3 months［12］. In August 2018, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization issued an early warning to the world on S. frugiperda. In November 2018, S. frugiperda entered Bangladesh and Sri Lanka［13］, and then invaded Myanmar in December 2018［14］. Among the invasions, the damage to sugarcane was the greatest in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka［15-16］.
Overview of occurrences in China
In January 2019, it was discovered and confirmed that S. frugiperda invaded Yunnan Province of China from Myanmar, followed with continuous monitoring throughout Yunnan. From January 14 to 18, 2019, S. frugiperda at different stages were found to do damage in the fields of Lancang County of Puer City, Yingjiang County of Dehong Prefecture, Mang City, Ruili City, Longchuan County of Dehong Prefecture, Changning County and Shidian County of Baoshan City in successions［17］. By the end of May 8th,S. frugiperda were found to do damage to the sugarcane planted in 13 counties of 5 cities, namely Jinggu, Jingdong, Jiangcheng, Ximeng, Lancang of Puer City, Longchuan and Yingjiang of Dehong Prefecture, Gengma, Shuangjiang, Zhenkang and Yongde of Lincang City, Menghai of Xishuangbanna and Shidian of Baoshan City. The outbreak covered an area of 1 232.81 hm2, causing damage to an area of 415.67 hm2, and the highest number of pests per 100 plants was 32.3. The larvae of S. frugiperda feed on sugarcane leaves, which can eat up a lot of sugarcane leaves, leaving only the veins, thus affecting the growth of the sugarcane. The rate of damaged plants in the re-emergence field is 30%-40%. During the film- mulching period, the larvae hide under the film to feed the sugarcane leaves, which can also cause the damage to the roots, leading to dead heart seedlings with the rate of dead heart seedlings of 1%-3%.
In spring, in addition to the local pest source provided by Yunnan in China, the pest sources in neighboring countries can also migrate into the southern provinces of China with the southwest monsoon. The climatic conditions are suitable for the development and activity of S. frugiperda. Yunnan Province is the only place where the S. frugiperda in Myanmar can move into China and the main areas where they land［18］. The sugarcane production areas in south China will face even more severe disaster threats.
Control Objectives
The prevention and control rate has reached more than 90%, with the application rate of green control technology reaching more than 30%, comprehensive control effect reaching more than 85%, and the damage loss rate controlled within 8%.
Control Strategies
The invading area should adhere to the guiding ideology of ecological control and strengthen prevention and control. Each sugarcane production area should closely monitor field pest dynamics and emergency prevention and control preparations, arrange light traps and sexual inducement monitoring as early as possible, and organize field inspections, timely release pest predictions, strive for early detection and early control, and reduce field insect bases so as to effectively control the extension and spread of the pests. It should scientifically guide the use of physical and chemical traps to control the adult populations, seize the critical period of prevention and control of young larvae, strengthen the census, and pay attention to regional joint control and unified control.
Control Measures
Ecological regulation and protection and utilization of natural enemies
If possible, the fields can be intercropped with non-grass crops to protect the parasitic and predatory natural enemies in the natural environment of the farmland, and to take advantage of the natural control of biodiversity, so as to form an ecological intercept zone.
Adult trapping technology The strong phototaxis of adults can be made use of by the concentrated contiguous use of solar frequency vibrating insecticidal lamp to trap adult, which can reduce the base number of insect population, protect sugarcane seedlings and reduce damage. Specific method is as follows: install 1 lamp every 2-4 hm2 (single lamp radiation radius of 100-120 m) at the height of 1.0-1.5 m (the distance from the entering mouth to the ground), turn on the light every day at 20:00-22:00 when the adults activity is at the peak period. At the same time, it can be combined with sexual attractants and food attractants to improve the control effect.
Larva control technology
It should effectively grasp the appropriate control period, seize the young larvae stage (before 3 instars old), and timely apply pesticides to control the pests. ① Biological control: spray Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium, Bacillus thuringiensis preparations as well as the biocides such as spinosad, matrine and azadirachtin in the early stage of egg hatching. ② Emergency control: When there are more than 10 larvae per 100 sugarcane plants, evenly spray the 600 times diluted 20% Sushate Awei fenitrothion EC + 1 500 times diluted 40% Daosan chloride fluoride EC, or 1 500 times diluted 4.5% beta-cypermethrin EC (or 5% Esfenvalerate EC, 20% pyrethroid EC) + 800 times diluted 90% trichlorfon crystals (or 50% phoxim EC, 48% chlorpyrifos EC) (focus on professional application of pesticides to achieve unified control quickly). The best spraying time is 4-5 pm in the afternoon. In view of the heterogeneous feeding habits of S. frugiperda, it should adopt uniform control of various crops for the same area to ensure the control effects. The areas with sporadic occurrences can adopt manual or mechanical spraying for control, while the areas with large-scale outbreaks can adopt UAV spraying for quick and efficient control.
Agricultural Biotechnology2019
References
［1］SPARKS AN. A review of the biology of the fall armyworm［J］. Florida Entomologist, 1979, 62(2): 82-87.
［2］TODD EL, POOLE RW. Keys and illustrations for the armyworm moths of the noctuid genus Spodoptera Guenee from the Western Hemisphere［J］. Annals of the entomological Society of America, 1980, 73(6): 722-738.
［3］United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Fall armyworm. http: //www.fao.org/fallarmyworm/zh/［EB/OL］.［2018-12-18］,［2019-01-20］
［4］GUO JF, ZHAO JZ, HE KL, et al. Potential invasion of the crop-devastating insect pest fall armyworm Spodoptera litura to China［J］. Plant Protection, 2018, 44(6): 1-10. ［5］YANG XL, LIU YC, LUO MZ, et al. First discovery of the genus Spodoptera in the southwestern part of China in Jiangcheng County, Yunnan Province［J］. Yunnan Agriculture, 2019 (01): 72.
［6］VISSER D. Fall armyworm: an identification guide in relation to other commoncaterpillars, a South Arican perspective［R］. Pretoria: Agricultural Research Concil Vegetable and Ornamental Plants, 2017.https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20187200624.
［7］EARLY R, GONZALEZ-MORENO P, MURPHY ST, et al. Forecasting the global extent of invasion of the cereal pest Spodoptera frugiperda, the fall armyworm［J］. NeoBiota. 2018, 40: 25-50.
［8］ABRAHAMS P, BATEMAN M, BEALE T, et al. Fall armyworm: impacts and implications for Africa, Evidence note(2), 2017, Report to DFID［R］. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 2017.https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/document/fall-armyworm-impacts-and-implications-for-afica-evidence-note-2-september-2017-98340/.
［9］WESTBROOK J, NAGOSHI R, MEAGHER R, et al. Modeling seasonal migration of fall armyworm moths［J］. International Journal of Biometeorology, 2016, 60(2):255-267.
［10］SHARANABASAPPA KS, ASOKAN CM, SWAMY R, et al. First report of the fallarmyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E.Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), an alien invasive pest on maize in Indian［J］. Pest Management In Horticultural Ecosystems, 2018, 24(1): 23-29.
［11］GOERGEN G, KUMAR PL, SANKUNG SB, et al. Report of outbreaks of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), a new alien Invasive pest in west and central Africa［J］,. Plos One 11(10): e0165632.
［12］IITA. Fall armyworm has reached the Indian subcontinent［EB/OL］. Http://www.iita.org/newsitem/fall-armyworm-has-reached-the Indian-subcontinent/.
［13］FAO Statement on Fall Armyworm in SriLanka［R］. 2019. http://www.fao.org/Srilanka/news/detail-events/en/c/1177796/.
［14］IPPC. First detection report of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptra: Noctuidae) on maize in Myanmar［R］.Rome: FAO, 2019.
［15］STEPHANIE P. Fall armyworm continues its invasion of Asia［R］. Earth Island Journal.2019.http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/fall-armyworm-continues-its-invasion-of-asia/.
［16］FAO. Fall armyworm likely to spread from India to other parts of Asia with South East Asia and South China most at risk［R］. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018.
［17］JIANG YY, LIU J, ZHU XM. Analysis of the occurrence dynamics and future trends of Spodoptera frugiperda invasion in China［J］. China Plant Protection, 2019, 39(2): 33-35.
［18］WU QL, JIANG YY, WU KM. Analysis of migration routes of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E.Smith) from Myanmar to China［J］. Plant Protection, 2019, 45(2): 1-6.
Key words Low latitude plateau areas; Spodoptera frugiperda; Occurrence; Dynamic monitoring; Prevention and control measures
Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smmith) is one of the major migratory pests warned by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)［1］. A member of Noctuidae, Lepidoptera, it is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas and it mainly does damage to crops such as corn, rice, sugar cane and tobacco［2］. There is still no report on S. frugiperda doing damage to sugarcane in In China and other countries and regions in Asia. Recently, S. frugiperda has been found to be harmful in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and China in Asia, and there is a trend of further spread and invasion［3-4］. Since January 11, 2019, when it was discovered that it invaded Chinas southwestern Yunnan from Myanmar and caused certain damage to winter maize, it has settled in China and has begun to multiply［5］. At present, it has found to have done damage to the sugarcane and corns in the sugarcane-producing areas in Jinggu County of Puer City, Longchuan County of Dehong Prefecture, Gengma County of Linyi City, Menghai County of Xishuangbanna, Yingjiang County of Dehong Prefecture, and Lancang County of Puer City in Yunan Province. In view of its heterogeneous feeding habits, wide area of suitable habitats and the rapid migratory spread, S. frugiperda has the potential of causing catastrophic threats to sugarcane production. In this paper, we made a systematic introduction to the morphological and biological characteristics of S. frugiperda, analyzed its occurrence situations and occurrence trends in Yunnan of China and other countries around the world, and proposed the control strategies and measures of ecological regulation and control, natural enemies protection and utilization, biological control, pesticide control and adults trapping based on the outbreak characteristics of S. frugiperda and the actual sugarcane production in low latitude plateau areas, with the aim to carry out real-time monitoring and scientific control of S. frugiperda. Morphological Characteristics and Biological Habits
Morphological characteristics
There are 4 stages for S. frugiperda, namely, adult, egg, larva and pupa［6］.
Adult: the adult S. frugiperda is stout, gray-brown in color with wingspan of 32-38 mm. The female adult has the color of fore wings varied from gray to gray-brown, while the male adults are darker with dark spots and light-colored dark lines. The hind wings are white, and the wing veins are brown and transparent. The female adult has round fore wings of light color, and the pterostigma rises distinctly at the gray end (Fig. 1D).
Egg: The eggs are dome-shaped, 0.4 mm in diameter and 0.3 mm high. Usually 100-200 eggs are stacked in blocks, and the eggs are covered with scales. They are light green or white at the time of initial production and gradually brown before hatching (Fig. 1A).
Larva: the larvae have 6 instars, occasionally 5. The eggs are green when initially hatched with black lines and spots. When growing, the larvae are still green or become pale yellow, each with a black back centerline and valve line. The mature larvae are 35-50 mm in length, with yellow-white inverted Y-shaped spots on the head, and black-backed scallops with native bristles. There are 4 dark spots in square arrangement at the end of the abdomen. Older larvae are mostly brown, and there are also individuals with black or green color, with the body length 30-50 mm. The heads are black, brown or yellow with with white or yellow inverted Y-shaped spots. The larvae have many longitudinal stripes, and the midline of the back is yellow. There is one yellow vertical stripe on each side of the back midline, and beside the stripe are black and yellow vertical stripes. The most obvious feature of the S. frugiperda larvae is that there are 4 black spots in a square arrangement at the end of the abdomen, and the head has a distinct inverted Y-shaped stripe (Fig. 1B, the parts in the circles are the inverted Y-shaped yellow vertical stripes in the head, and the 4 black spots in a square arrangement at the end of the abdomen).
Pupa: the pupa is oval in shape with reddish brown color of 14-18 mm long and 4.5 mm wide. The mature larvae use the shallow soil layer as pupa chamber after falling to the ground, and the pupa pupate in the cocoon packed with sand.
Biological habits
Varied host varieties. S. frugiperda is a polyphagous pest that is most liable to do damage to economically important crops such as corn, rice, sugar cane, and tobacco. Wide range of habitats. S. frugiperda is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the America and is widely distributed in the American continent. Because there is no diapause phenomenon, in the original distribution area of the Americas, the perennial breeding area of S. frugiperda can go south to Lapanpa, Argentina, and the northern border can reach Florida and southern Texas. However, S. frugiperda can only survive the winter in the temperate South Florida and Texas, and thus in each spring, the adults begin to migrate to the north from the wintering places and then do damage to the temperate planting areas. In the late summer, S. frugiperda can move north to Ontario and Quebec in Canada［7］. S. frugiperda can reproduce around the year in Central and South America as well as most of the newly invaded Africa where the climate, host conditions are suitable［8］.
Strong migratory ability. S. frugiperda adults can migrate for long-distance in certain direction with high winds［9］. Adults usually move 100 km before spawning, and if the wind direction and speed are appropriate, the migration distance can be longer.
Overview of Occurrences
Overview of occurrences in foreign countries
S. frugiperda is native to the tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas and is widely distributed in the American continent. At the beginning of 2016, S. frugiperda was first discovered invaded in western Africa［10］and exploded into disasters. In April 2017, 12 African countries reported the invasion of S. frugiperda; in January 2018, S. frugiperda invaded 44 countries in Africa［11］. S. frugiperda invaded India in May 2018, and spread throughout India in 3 months［12］. In August 2018, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization issued an early warning to the world on S. frugiperda. In November 2018, S. frugiperda entered Bangladesh and Sri Lanka［13］, and then invaded Myanmar in December 2018［14］. Among the invasions, the damage to sugarcane was the greatest in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka［15-16］.
Overview of occurrences in China
In January 2019, it was discovered and confirmed that S. frugiperda invaded Yunnan Province of China from Myanmar, followed with continuous monitoring throughout Yunnan. From January 14 to 18, 2019, S. frugiperda at different stages were found to do damage in the fields of Lancang County of Puer City, Yingjiang County of Dehong Prefecture, Mang City, Ruili City, Longchuan County of Dehong Prefecture, Changning County and Shidian County of Baoshan City in successions［17］. By the end of May 8th,S. frugiperda were found to do damage to the sugarcane planted in 13 counties of 5 cities, namely Jinggu, Jingdong, Jiangcheng, Ximeng, Lancang of Puer City, Longchuan and Yingjiang of Dehong Prefecture, Gengma, Shuangjiang, Zhenkang and Yongde of Lincang City, Menghai of Xishuangbanna and Shidian of Baoshan City. The outbreak covered an area of 1 232.81 hm2, causing damage to an area of 415.67 hm2, and the highest number of pests per 100 plants was 32.3. The larvae of S. frugiperda feed on sugarcane leaves, which can eat up a lot of sugarcane leaves, leaving only the veins, thus affecting the growth of the sugarcane. The rate of damaged plants in the re-emergence field is 30%-40%. During the film- mulching period, the larvae hide under the film to feed the sugarcane leaves, which can also cause the damage to the roots, leading to dead heart seedlings with the rate of dead heart seedlings of 1%-3%.
In spring, in addition to the local pest source provided by Yunnan in China, the pest sources in neighboring countries can also migrate into the southern provinces of China with the southwest monsoon. The climatic conditions are suitable for the development and activity of S. frugiperda. Yunnan Province is the only place where the S. frugiperda in Myanmar can move into China and the main areas where they land［18］. The sugarcane production areas in south China will face even more severe disaster threats.
Control Objectives
The prevention and control rate has reached more than 90%, with the application rate of green control technology reaching more than 30%, comprehensive control effect reaching more than 85%, and the damage loss rate controlled within 8%.
Control Strategies
The invading area should adhere to the guiding ideology of ecological control and strengthen prevention and control. Each sugarcane production area should closely monitor field pest dynamics and emergency prevention and control preparations, arrange light traps and sexual inducement monitoring as early as possible, and organize field inspections, timely release pest predictions, strive for early detection and early control, and reduce field insect bases so as to effectively control the extension and spread of the pests. It should scientifically guide the use of physical and chemical traps to control the adult populations, seize the critical period of prevention and control of young larvae, strengthen the census, and pay attention to regional joint control and unified control.
Control Measures
Ecological regulation and protection and utilization of natural enemies
If possible, the fields can be intercropped with non-grass crops to protect the parasitic and predatory natural enemies in the natural environment of the farmland, and to take advantage of the natural control of biodiversity, so as to form an ecological intercept zone.
Adult trapping technology The strong phototaxis of adults can be made use of by the concentrated contiguous use of solar frequency vibrating insecticidal lamp to trap adult, which can reduce the base number of insect population, protect sugarcane seedlings and reduce damage. Specific method is as follows: install 1 lamp every 2-4 hm2 (single lamp radiation radius of 100-120 m) at the height of 1.0-1.5 m (the distance from the entering mouth to the ground), turn on the light every day at 20:00-22:00 when the adults activity is at the peak period. At the same time, it can be combined with sexual attractants and food attractants to improve the control effect.
Larva control technology
It should effectively grasp the appropriate control period, seize the young larvae stage (before 3 instars old), and timely apply pesticides to control the pests. ① Biological control: spray Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium, Bacillus thuringiensis preparations as well as the biocides such as spinosad, matrine and azadirachtin in the early stage of egg hatching. ② Emergency control: When there are more than 10 larvae per 100 sugarcane plants, evenly spray the 600 times diluted 20% Sushate Awei fenitrothion EC + 1 500 times diluted 40% Daosan chloride fluoride EC, or 1 500 times diluted 4.5% beta-cypermethrin EC (or 5% Esfenvalerate EC, 20% pyrethroid EC) + 800 times diluted 90% trichlorfon crystals (or 50% phoxim EC, 48% chlorpyrifos EC) (focus on professional application of pesticides to achieve unified control quickly). The best spraying time is 4-5 pm in the afternoon. In view of the heterogeneous feeding habits of S. frugiperda, it should adopt uniform control of various crops for the same area to ensure the control effects. The areas with sporadic occurrences can adopt manual or mechanical spraying for control, while the areas with large-scale outbreaks can adopt UAV spraying for quick and efficient control.
Agricultural Biotechnology2019
References
［1］SPARKS AN. A review of the biology of the fall armyworm［J］. Florida Entomologist, 1979, 62(2): 82-87.
［2］TODD EL, POOLE RW. Keys and illustrations for the armyworm moths of the noctuid genus Spodoptera Guenee from the Western Hemisphere［J］. Annals of the entomological Society of America, 1980, 73(6): 722-738.
［3］United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Fall armyworm. http: //www.fao.org/fallarmyworm/zh/［EB/OL］.［2018-12-18］,［2019-01-20］
［4］GUO JF, ZHAO JZ, HE KL, et al. Potential invasion of the crop-devastating insect pest fall armyworm Spodoptera litura to China［J］. Plant Protection, 2018, 44(6): 1-10. ［5］YANG XL, LIU YC, LUO MZ, et al. First discovery of the genus Spodoptera in the southwestern part of China in Jiangcheng County, Yunnan Province［J］. Yunnan Agriculture, 2019 (01): 72.
［6］VISSER D. Fall armyworm: an identification guide in relation to other commoncaterpillars, a South Arican perspective［R］. Pretoria: Agricultural Research Concil Vegetable and Ornamental Plants, 2017.https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20187200624.
［7］EARLY R, GONZALEZ-MORENO P, MURPHY ST, et al. Forecasting the global extent of invasion of the cereal pest Spodoptera frugiperda, the fall armyworm［J］. NeoBiota. 2018, 40: 25-50.
［8］ABRAHAMS P, BATEMAN M, BEALE T, et al. Fall armyworm: impacts and implications for Africa, Evidence note(2), 2017, Report to DFID［R］. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 2017.https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/document/fall-armyworm-impacts-and-implications-for-afica-evidence-note-2-september-2017-98340/.
［9］WESTBROOK J, NAGOSHI R, MEAGHER R, et al. Modeling seasonal migration of fall armyworm moths［J］. International Journal of Biometeorology, 2016, 60(2):255-267.
［10］SHARANABASAPPA KS, ASOKAN CM, SWAMY R, et al. First report of the fallarmyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E.Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), an alien invasive pest on maize in Indian［J］. Pest Management In Horticultural Ecosystems, 2018, 24(1): 23-29.
［11］GOERGEN G, KUMAR PL, SANKUNG SB, et al. Report of outbreaks of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), a new alien Invasive pest in west and central Africa［J］,. Plos One 11(10): e0165632.
［12］IITA. Fall armyworm has reached the Indian subcontinent［EB/OL］. Http://www.iita.org/newsitem/fall-armyworm-has-reached-the Indian-subcontinent/.
［13］FAO Statement on Fall Armyworm in SriLanka［R］. 2019. http://www.fao.org/Srilanka/news/detail-events/en/c/1177796/.
［14］IPPC. First detection report of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptra: Noctuidae) on maize in Myanmar［R］.Rome: FAO, 2019.
［15］STEPHANIE P. Fall armyworm continues its invasion of Asia［R］. Earth Island Journal.2019.http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/fall-armyworm-continues-its-invasion-of-asia/.
［16］FAO. Fall armyworm likely to spread from India to other parts of Asia with South East Asia and South China most at risk［R］. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2018.
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