论文部分内容阅读
【摘要】在政治演说中,争取公众有着重要的意义。辩说是争取公众的最有效手段之一。需要说服力,感染力,以理服人等作为支撑。礼貌得体,讲清道理,回绝无理要求,创造幽默效果等为体现。本文以2010年 the Sky News leaders’debate 文本为例,运用言语行为理论,合作与礼貌原则以及关联辩论等语用学理论来分析辩论言语,并运用到实际生活中。
【关键词】辩论;言语行为理论;合作与礼貌原则;关联辩论;语用策略
一、辩论的一般特征
1.辩论的本质
是指代表不同思想观点的各方,彼此用一定的理由来说明自己的观点是正确的,揭露对方的观点是错误的一种语言交锋的过程。辩论就是不同思想观点间的语言交锋。
竞选论辩是竞选者为谋求某一职位而与人发生的论辩。是竞选者宣传自己,打击对手,争取选民的好机会。
2.竞选辩论的特点
(1)竞争性。直面交锋,多者选一,最强者为胜。
(2)严肃性和使命性。竞选辩论时要负一定责任的,提出自己一旦当选将要实施的蓝图,方略,表明自己的任期目标和相应的切实可行的措施。
(3)目的是为了征服观众。辩论者谋求职位必须获得选民的同情和支持,塑造良好的自我形象。
3.说服性演说
影响:是指对人或事件进程所起的作用。可以使积极的或消极的,可以是人或非人的,故意的或无意的,道德的或不道德的。影响包括灯光线,音乐和画面等情绪基调,也包括人的其他行为和表现。
打动:导致一种行为或信念的任何刺激和引诱作用。
说服:是一种变化过程,源自能分享的和形象化的思维活动。说服的效果表现在受者的思想和行为之间。
二、辩论言语行为
1.说服言语行为
现任的英国首相和工党领导人Gordon Brown:
“This may have the feel of a TV popularity contest, but in truth, this is an election about Britain's future, a fight for your future, and for your jobs.”“If it's about the big decisions, if it's about judgment, it's delivering a better future for this country, I'm your man.”
自由党领导人 Nick Clegg:
“I believe the way things are is not the way things have to be. You're going to be told tonight by these two that the only choice you can make is between two old parties who've been running things for years. I'm here to persuade you that there is an alternative.”“o don't let anyone tell you that the only choice is old politics. We can do something new; we can do something different this time. That's what I'm about; that's what the Liberal Democrats offer.”
区分的第一种言语类型由肯定的言语行为组成,简称为肯定句。说话人或作者用这种言语行为“肯定”某个命题。
GORDON BROWN:negotiating a global financial tax. That is the right thing to do.
第二种类型的言语行为由祈使句构成。借助于这种言语行为讲话人或作者极力使听众或读者实施某种行为或避免某种行为,例如,请求和禁止。
DAVID CAMERON:Whether it was moats, or whether it was politicians claiming on phantom mortgages, or whether it was kitchens and cake tins and the rest of it, don't anyone try and put themselves on a pedestal over this issue. Let's actually sort it out and clean it up and recognise we were all in this mess.
第三种类型的言语行为由承诺句组成。在这种言语行为中讲话人或作者通过听众或读者许诺实施或避免实施某种行为。
GORDON BROWN:What are we doing now? We're going to link pensions to earnings in 2012, so every pension will be linked to earnings and not just prices. Secondly, women, and you are one of them, who have not had the full state pension, we are making it possible for all women in future to have that full state pension. And thirdly, of course, we've got to deal with the poverty that people face as pensioners. That is why the pension credits, the winter fuel allowance, all these things have been introduced…. That's what I want to see and that's what I want to do.
第四种言语行为由感叹句组成。在这种言语行为中,讲话人或作者通过祝贺或感谢某人、表示惋惜等等而表达情感
GORDON BROWN:if you want to be fair, you don't give people an inheritance tax and then cut child tax credits for middle-class families, you don't cut the child trust fund, you don't cut the schools budget, you don't have a do-it-yourself society.
第五种言语行为由宣布句或声明句组成。借助这种言语行为,例如,当会议主席说:“我宣布开会。”讲话人造成某种特定事态的产生。
ADAM BOULTON:David, it's over to you now for a free debate.
2.礼貌原则的违背与遵循
根据语言的言外功能和言语活动中维持良好的人际关系这一社会目标之间的相互关系,Leech把言外行为分为四大类:1)竞争类 ,2)和谐类,3)合作类,4)冲突类。
GORDON BROWN:You know who these two guys remind me? They remind me of my two young boys squabbling at bath time. And the squabbling about...
NICK CLEGG:That's a good line in rehearsal.
ADAM BOULTON:I think we're past bath time now!
GORDON BROWN:Squabbling about whether to have referendums on the European Union. What we need is jobs, and growth, and economic recovery. We work with our partners to get that. The sooner Nick realised also we had to work with America and Europe to get economic growth in the future, the better. I'm afraid David is anti-European, Nick is anti-American, and both of them are out of touch with reality.
GORDON BROWN:David, David, you're running up the wrong line.
NICK CLEGG:I, unlike David Cameron and Gordon Brown, have been in there, have sought changes.
NICK CLEGG:I don't think it's right to do what both David Cameron and Gordon Brown want, which is now to commit, before we need to make a decision.
辩论话语在本质上是竞争性的,更要注意礼貌地使用语言。
DAVID CAMERON:I completely agree with Gordon Brown about the bravery of our forces.
礼貌原则是主要是针对第三者,即针对同为听话人的评委、主持人和观众而言。“言者无心,听者有意。”因此,辩论对方都很重视第三者的存在,事实上,这种辩论最重要的就是表演给第三者看和听,要力争获得第三者的青睐。因此,除了说话人要说切合自己身份地位的话,还要尽可能主动多说尊重第三者身份地位处境的话,产生礼貌话语的正效应。
3.辩论的信息控制
合作原则
(1)量的控制
辩者在辩论中,要想使自己的观点和主张站住脚,并进一步去说服对立方辩者和受众,必须有足够的材料,引证足够的事实,阐明足够的道理,抒发足够的感情,要有足够的语义信息并将语义信息准确无误地传递给对手和受众,从而使其充分发挥语用信息的认识价值,交际价值和审美价值。辩论的失败,或辩论双方两败俱伤,或辩论双方僵持不下暂时搁置辩题而不了了之,从信息理论角度来分析,大抵皆因辩论的信息量不足所致。
(2)质的控制
衡量辩论信息“质”,特别应该要求“新”。对辩论信息“质”的分析.就是要分析它的新颖程度。因为只有新颖的、信宿未知的信息。才能消除不确定性。这样的信息在辩论中应该充当主要材料,发挥其辩护和辩驳的作用。辩论信息的质是辩论信息的量的保证。辩论信息只有在质上有一定新颖程度,才能保证足够的信息量。要在辩论中保持足够的新颖信息。有效地发挥其辩论功能,这就要求辩者不断培养和服炼对新鲜事物和事理的敏锐的捕捉能力、要做到善于发现和识别、并及时运用、传输这些新颖的信息。
(3)关联控制
辩论信息的真。表现为准确、客观、全面。辩论中所运用的村料,不论是人、事、物、过程、环境、背景、细节、征引的言论,都应该准确无误,与主题相关。所传输的各种信息,还必须是具体事实的真实与整体事实的真实有机的统一。它不应只是个别的、偶然的,而应是充分反映客观事物的必然的实质的信息。辩论信息只有保持其真,才能被对手和受众接受、信服、这才能发挥它的辩护和辩驳的功能,才能战胜对手、说服受众。
DAVID CAMERON:I don't want to bore people with the figures, but it is important. Up until 1997, the highest number for net migration into the UK was 77,000 in a year. Since 1997, since Labour came to power, it has never been lower than 140,000, sometimes it has been 200,000, that's equivalent to two million across a decade.
(4)方式控制
只有在辩论信息传播过程中、达到这四方面的要求,才能使辩论的有效信息多。辩沦内容的质量高,辩论成功的把握大,这才能有可能获得真理性的认识。
4.对合作原则的违反来提高人们的辩论能力
(1)礼貌和辩论
礼貌原则是主要是针对第三者,即针对同为听话人的评委、主持人和观众而言。“言者无心,听者有意。”因此,辩论对方都很重视第三者的存在,事实上,这种辩论最重要的就是表演给第三者看和听,要力争获得第三者的青睐。因此,除了说话人要说切合自己身份地位的话,还要尽可能主动多说尊重第三者身份地位处境的话,产生礼貌话语的正效应。
(2)幽默和辩论
GORDON BROWN:But I must say, I'm very worried about Nick's policy, because it sends a message to people all around the world, if you come to Britain there'll be some sort of amnesty that will allow you to come here freely in the end, without having to be thrown out of the country.
(3)反讽和辩论
GORDON BROWN:Politics can make a difference.
DAVID CAMERON:Politics can make a difference, Mary, but I would say the politicians in this country have been treating the people as mugs for far too long. They've been sort of saying, we can do everything, vote for us and we'll solve all your problems. Let us pass a few more laws, spend a bit more money, pass more regulation and all the trouble will be fixed. It is not really true, it is a big lie. The truth is, if you really want to change things, if you want safer streets, if yo want better schools, yes, the Government's got its role, but we've all got our responsibilities, too.
DAVID CAMERON:I just think it is disgraceful to try and frighten people in an election campaign, as Gordon Brown has just done, and as the Labour Party are doing up and down the country. I would like to take this opportunity to say very clearly to any pensioner in the audience, anyone listening at home, that we will keep the free television license, we will keep the pension credit, we'll keep the winter fuel allowance, we'll keep the free bus pass. Those leaflets you have been getting from Labour, the letters you have been getting from Labour are pure and simple lies. A politician shouldn't say lies very often, I say it because I have seen the leaflets and they make me really very, very angry. You should not be frightening people in an election campaign, it is just not right.
原则上,论辩应该适应于以具体的方式处理意见分歧。必须通过论辩消除怀疑和批评不仅涉及到对论辩的需求,还涉及到对论辩的内在和外在结构以及论辩的必不可少的要求标准。语用辩证法认为论辩言语应用具有调解分歧的作用。一个人以某种具体的方式采纳、质问、拒绝、防守或攻击某一特定的论点可能拥有种种动机。 “被说服”可以理解为起初攻击某个言语行为的人转而接受该言语行为的肯定承诺的外在体现。
三、关联论辩
1.准逻辑论辩
说服性辩论的常见组织结构有陈述原因型,比较优势型,满足标准型,解决问题型以及激发智力型。
陈述原因型:直接的组织结构,要用一定的顺序来提出支持命题的理由。
比较优势型:该组织结构试图证明提议的改变要比现状好。
满足标准型:一种间接地组织结构,它首先寻求听众对于评估一个命题所需的各项标准的认同,然后再说明该主张是如何符合这些标准的。
解决问题型:提供了一个框架,明确某个问题的本质,还说明了为什么辩论者主张的方法是最佳解决办法。
NICK CLEGG:I believe we can rise to all of those challenges if we say no to the old parties and yes to something new and something different. That's what I offer and that's what the Liberal Democrats offer. So don't let them tell you that the only choice is between two old parties who have been playing pass the parcel with your government for 65 years now - making the same promises, breaking the same promises. Making the same old mistakes over and over again. I think, despite all the challenges, all the problems we have, I think we can be really hopeful about the future. I genuinely believe we can have a better fairer country if we do things differently. So give real change a chance. Trust your instincts. Support fairness. Choose something different.
激发智力型:不仅要影响听众的信念和态度,还要激发他们有所行动。
NICK CLEGG:I think if we do things differently, if we stand up for the value's that have made our country great, then we can be proud again, proud of greater fairness here at home, and proud also, of standing up for the things we believe in, in the world. We don't simply need to choose from the old choices of the past, we don't need to repeat the mistakes of the past. Don't let anyone tell you this time it can't be different. It can.
2.以现实结构为基础的论辩
做说服性辩论时,具体目标应被陈述为命题。命题就是明确地表达出演讲者对于他所宣传的主题持什么立场,将其总结为一句宣言。
说服性辩论的目的有三种,可分为:事实命题,价值观命题和政策命题。
事实命题是以说服听众相信某事是真的或假的,是否存在或者是否发生过为内容的命题。
价值观命题是以说服听众相信某物是好的,坏的,值得的,不值得的,可靠的,有利的,重要的或不重要的为内容的命题。
GORDON BROWN:But David, I take responsibility for my decisions, and I ask people right throughout society to take responsibility. But you can't run the health service on a do-it-yourself principle, you have to finance it properly.
政策命题是以劝说听众要采取何种具体行动路线为内容的命题。
3.以现实结构为依据的论辩
说服性辩论所用的论证常有四种类型,分别是例证,类推论证,因果论证以及迹象论证例证是使用例子证明你的主张。
类推论证是用一个与主张内容具有很大相似性的可比例子作为强有力的证据来证明主张。
因果论证是利用例举引起某个主张的若干事件来证明这个主张。
迹象论证是引用能够预示结论的信息。
GORDON BROWN:I would say this evening, David;you're a risk to the economy. Nick, you're a risk because of what you're saying on Iran and on nuclear weapons to our security. Nick, you would leave us weak. David,you would leave us isolated in Europe.I think these are the problems that these parties have got to face up to. We have a credible long-term plan for the future of Britain.
参考文献:
[1]何兆熊.语用学概要[M].上海外语教育出版社,1989.
[2]何自然.语用学概论[M].湖南教育出版社,1988.
[3]赵传栋.辩论原理[M].复旦大学出版社,1997.
[4]李元授,李鹏.辩论学[M].华中科技大学出版社,2004.
[5][美]雷蒙德·罗斯.演说的魅力[M].中国文联出版公司出版,1989.
[6]鲁道夫·F.维尔德伯,凯瑟琳·S.维尔德伯.演讲的艺术[M].清华大学出版社,2008.
【关键词】辩论;言语行为理论;合作与礼貌原则;关联辩论;语用策略
一、辩论的一般特征
1.辩论的本质
是指代表不同思想观点的各方,彼此用一定的理由来说明自己的观点是正确的,揭露对方的观点是错误的一种语言交锋的过程。辩论就是不同思想观点间的语言交锋。
竞选论辩是竞选者为谋求某一职位而与人发生的论辩。是竞选者宣传自己,打击对手,争取选民的好机会。
2.竞选辩论的特点
(1)竞争性。直面交锋,多者选一,最强者为胜。
(2)严肃性和使命性。竞选辩论时要负一定责任的,提出自己一旦当选将要实施的蓝图,方略,表明自己的任期目标和相应的切实可行的措施。
(3)目的是为了征服观众。辩论者谋求职位必须获得选民的同情和支持,塑造良好的自我形象。
3.说服性演说
影响:是指对人或事件进程所起的作用。可以使积极的或消极的,可以是人或非人的,故意的或无意的,道德的或不道德的。影响包括灯光线,音乐和画面等情绪基调,也包括人的其他行为和表现。
打动:导致一种行为或信念的任何刺激和引诱作用。
说服:是一种变化过程,源自能分享的和形象化的思维活动。说服的效果表现在受者的思想和行为之间。
二、辩论言语行为
1.说服言语行为
现任的英国首相和工党领导人Gordon Brown:
“This may have the feel of a TV popularity contest, but in truth, this is an election about Britain's future, a fight for your future, and for your jobs.”“If it's about the big decisions, if it's about judgment, it's delivering a better future for this country, I'm your man.”
自由党领导人 Nick Clegg:
“I believe the way things are is not the way things have to be. You're going to be told tonight by these two that the only choice you can make is between two old parties who've been running things for years. I'm here to persuade you that there is an alternative.”“o don't let anyone tell you that the only choice is old politics. We can do something new; we can do something different this time. That's what I'm about; that's what the Liberal Democrats offer.”
区分的第一种言语类型由肯定的言语行为组成,简称为肯定句。说话人或作者用这种言语行为“肯定”某个命题。
GORDON BROWN:negotiating a global financial tax. That is the right thing to do.
第二种类型的言语行为由祈使句构成。借助于这种言语行为讲话人或作者极力使听众或读者实施某种行为或避免某种行为,例如,请求和禁止。
DAVID CAMERON:Whether it was moats, or whether it was politicians claiming on phantom mortgages, or whether it was kitchens and cake tins and the rest of it, don't anyone try and put themselves on a pedestal over this issue. Let's actually sort it out and clean it up and recognise we were all in this mess.
第三种类型的言语行为由承诺句组成。在这种言语行为中讲话人或作者通过听众或读者许诺实施或避免实施某种行为。
GORDON BROWN:What are we doing now? We're going to link pensions to earnings in 2012, so every pension will be linked to earnings and not just prices. Secondly, women, and you are one of them, who have not had the full state pension, we are making it possible for all women in future to have that full state pension. And thirdly, of course, we've got to deal with the poverty that people face as pensioners. That is why the pension credits, the winter fuel allowance, all these things have been introduced…. That's what I want to see and that's what I want to do.
第四种言语行为由感叹句组成。在这种言语行为中,讲话人或作者通过祝贺或感谢某人、表示惋惜等等而表达情感
GORDON BROWN:if you want to be fair, you don't give people an inheritance tax and then cut child tax credits for middle-class families, you don't cut the child trust fund, you don't cut the schools budget, you don't have a do-it-yourself society.
第五种言语行为由宣布句或声明句组成。借助这种言语行为,例如,当会议主席说:“我宣布开会。”讲话人造成某种特定事态的产生。
ADAM BOULTON:David, it's over to you now for a free debate.
2.礼貌原则的违背与遵循
根据语言的言外功能和言语活动中维持良好的人际关系这一社会目标之间的相互关系,Leech把言外行为分为四大类:1)竞争类 ,2)和谐类,3)合作类,4)冲突类。
GORDON BROWN:You know who these two guys remind me? They remind me of my two young boys squabbling at bath time. And the squabbling about...
NICK CLEGG:That's a good line in rehearsal.
ADAM BOULTON:I think we're past bath time now!
GORDON BROWN:Squabbling about whether to have referendums on the European Union. What we need is jobs, and growth, and economic recovery. We work with our partners to get that. The sooner Nick realised also we had to work with America and Europe to get economic growth in the future, the better. I'm afraid David is anti-European, Nick is anti-American, and both of them are out of touch with reality.
GORDON BROWN:David, David, you're running up the wrong line.
NICK CLEGG:I, unlike David Cameron and Gordon Brown, have been in there, have sought changes.
NICK CLEGG:I don't think it's right to do what both David Cameron and Gordon Brown want, which is now to commit, before we need to make a decision.
辩论话语在本质上是竞争性的,更要注意礼貌地使用语言。
DAVID CAMERON:I completely agree with Gordon Brown about the bravery of our forces.
礼貌原则是主要是针对第三者,即针对同为听话人的评委、主持人和观众而言。“言者无心,听者有意。”因此,辩论对方都很重视第三者的存在,事实上,这种辩论最重要的就是表演给第三者看和听,要力争获得第三者的青睐。因此,除了说话人要说切合自己身份地位的话,还要尽可能主动多说尊重第三者身份地位处境的话,产生礼貌话语的正效应。
3.辩论的信息控制
合作原则
(1)量的控制
辩者在辩论中,要想使自己的观点和主张站住脚,并进一步去说服对立方辩者和受众,必须有足够的材料,引证足够的事实,阐明足够的道理,抒发足够的感情,要有足够的语义信息并将语义信息准确无误地传递给对手和受众,从而使其充分发挥语用信息的认识价值,交际价值和审美价值。辩论的失败,或辩论双方两败俱伤,或辩论双方僵持不下暂时搁置辩题而不了了之,从信息理论角度来分析,大抵皆因辩论的信息量不足所致。
(2)质的控制
衡量辩论信息“质”,特别应该要求“新”。对辩论信息“质”的分析.就是要分析它的新颖程度。因为只有新颖的、信宿未知的信息。才能消除不确定性。这样的信息在辩论中应该充当主要材料,发挥其辩护和辩驳的作用。辩论信息的质是辩论信息的量的保证。辩论信息只有在质上有一定新颖程度,才能保证足够的信息量。要在辩论中保持足够的新颖信息。有效地发挥其辩论功能,这就要求辩者不断培养和服炼对新鲜事物和事理的敏锐的捕捉能力、要做到善于发现和识别、并及时运用、传输这些新颖的信息。
(3)关联控制
辩论信息的真。表现为准确、客观、全面。辩论中所运用的村料,不论是人、事、物、过程、环境、背景、细节、征引的言论,都应该准确无误,与主题相关。所传输的各种信息,还必须是具体事实的真实与整体事实的真实有机的统一。它不应只是个别的、偶然的,而应是充分反映客观事物的必然的实质的信息。辩论信息只有保持其真,才能被对手和受众接受、信服、这才能发挥它的辩护和辩驳的功能,才能战胜对手、说服受众。
DAVID CAMERON:I don't want to bore people with the figures, but it is important. Up until 1997, the highest number for net migration into the UK was 77,000 in a year. Since 1997, since Labour came to power, it has never been lower than 140,000, sometimes it has been 200,000, that's equivalent to two million across a decade.
(4)方式控制
只有在辩论信息传播过程中、达到这四方面的要求,才能使辩论的有效信息多。辩沦内容的质量高,辩论成功的把握大,这才能有可能获得真理性的认识。
4.对合作原则的违反来提高人们的辩论能力
(1)礼貌和辩论
礼貌原则是主要是针对第三者,即针对同为听话人的评委、主持人和观众而言。“言者无心,听者有意。”因此,辩论对方都很重视第三者的存在,事实上,这种辩论最重要的就是表演给第三者看和听,要力争获得第三者的青睐。因此,除了说话人要说切合自己身份地位的话,还要尽可能主动多说尊重第三者身份地位处境的话,产生礼貌话语的正效应。
(2)幽默和辩论
GORDON BROWN:But I must say, I'm very worried about Nick's policy, because it sends a message to people all around the world, if you come to Britain there'll be some sort of amnesty that will allow you to come here freely in the end, without having to be thrown out of the country.
(3)反讽和辩论
GORDON BROWN:Politics can make a difference.
DAVID CAMERON:Politics can make a difference, Mary, but I would say the politicians in this country have been treating the people as mugs for far too long. They've been sort of saying, we can do everything, vote for us and we'll solve all your problems. Let us pass a few more laws, spend a bit more money, pass more regulation and all the trouble will be fixed. It is not really true, it is a big lie. The truth is, if you really want to change things, if you want safer streets, if yo want better schools, yes, the Government's got its role, but we've all got our responsibilities, too.
DAVID CAMERON:I just think it is disgraceful to try and frighten people in an election campaign, as Gordon Brown has just done, and as the Labour Party are doing up and down the country. I would like to take this opportunity to say very clearly to any pensioner in the audience, anyone listening at home, that we will keep the free television license, we will keep the pension credit, we'll keep the winter fuel allowance, we'll keep the free bus pass. Those leaflets you have been getting from Labour, the letters you have been getting from Labour are pure and simple lies. A politician shouldn't say lies very often, I say it because I have seen the leaflets and they make me really very, very angry. You should not be frightening people in an election campaign, it is just not right.
原则上,论辩应该适应于以具体的方式处理意见分歧。必须通过论辩消除怀疑和批评不仅涉及到对论辩的需求,还涉及到对论辩的内在和外在结构以及论辩的必不可少的要求标准。语用辩证法认为论辩言语应用具有调解分歧的作用。一个人以某种具体的方式采纳、质问、拒绝、防守或攻击某一特定的论点可能拥有种种动机。 “被说服”可以理解为起初攻击某个言语行为的人转而接受该言语行为的肯定承诺的外在体现。
三、关联论辩
1.准逻辑论辩
说服性辩论的常见组织结构有陈述原因型,比较优势型,满足标准型,解决问题型以及激发智力型。
陈述原因型:直接的组织结构,要用一定的顺序来提出支持命题的理由。
比较优势型:该组织结构试图证明提议的改变要比现状好。
满足标准型:一种间接地组织结构,它首先寻求听众对于评估一个命题所需的各项标准的认同,然后再说明该主张是如何符合这些标准的。
解决问题型:提供了一个框架,明确某个问题的本质,还说明了为什么辩论者主张的方法是最佳解决办法。
NICK CLEGG:I believe we can rise to all of those challenges if we say no to the old parties and yes to something new and something different. That's what I offer and that's what the Liberal Democrats offer. So don't let them tell you that the only choice is between two old parties who have been playing pass the parcel with your government for 65 years now - making the same promises, breaking the same promises. Making the same old mistakes over and over again. I think, despite all the challenges, all the problems we have, I think we can be really hopeful about the future. I genuinely believe we can have a better fairer country if we do things differently. So give real change a chance. Trust your instincts. Support fairness. Choose something different.
激发智力型:不仅要影响听众的信念和态度,还要激发他们有所行动。
NICK CLEGG:I think if we do things differently, if we stand up for the value's that have made our country great, then we can be proud again, proud of greater fairness here at home, and proud also, of standing up for the things we believe in, in the world. We don't simply need to choose from the old choices of the past, we don't need to repeat the mistakes of the past. Don't let anyone tell you this time it can't be different. It can.
2.以现实结构为基础的论辩
做说服性辩论时,具体目标应被陈述为命题。命题就是明确地表达出演讲者对于他所宣传的主题持什么立场,将其总结为一句宣言。
说服性辩论的目的有三种,可分为:事实命题,价值观命题和政策命题。
事实命题是以说服听众相信某事是真的或假的,是否存在或者是否发生过为内容的命题。
价值观命题是以说服听众相信某物是好的,坏的,值得的,不值得的,可靠的,有利的,重要的或不重要的为内容的命题。
GORDON BROWN:But David, I take responsibility for my decisions, and I ask people right throughout society to take responsibility. But you can't run the health service on a do-it-yourself principle, you have to finance it properly.
政策命题是以劝说听众要采取何种具体行动路线为内容的命题。
3.以现实结构为依据的论辩
说服性辩论所用的论证常有四种类型,分别是例证,类推论证,因果论证以及迹象论证例证是使用例子证明你的主张。
类推论证是用一个与主张内容具有很大相似性的可比例子作为强有力的证据来证明主张。
因果论证是利用例举引起某个主张的若干事件来证明这个主张。
迹象论证是引用能够预示结论的信息。
GORDON BROWN:I would say this evening, David;you're a risk to the economy. Nick, you're a risk because of what you're saying on Iran and on nuclear weapons to our security. Nick, you would leave us weak. David,you would leave us isolated in Europe.I think these are the problems that these parties have got to face up to. We have a credible long-term plan for the future of Britain.
参考文献:
[1]何兆熊.语用学概要[M].上海外语教育出版社,1989.
[2]何自然.语用学概论[M].湖南教育出版社,1988.
[3]赵传栋.辩论原理[M].复旦大学出版社,1997.
[4]李元授,李鹏.辩论学[M].华中科技大学出版社,2004.
[5][美]雷蒙德·罗斯.演说的魅力[M].中国文联出版公司出版,1989.
[6]鲁道夫·F.维尔德伯,凯瑟琳·S.维尔德伯.演讲的艺术[M].清华大学出版社,2008.