The uncertainty of postmodern world is a common belief. This uncertainty influences citizens in all aspects of their lives (personal, professional, social, etc.). The question arises intensively: How can people be prepared for this continuous changing? One of the suggestions presented in current literature is the development of critical reflection. Educational environment can play a major role in this domain. The need for the development of critical reflection is especially noted in the higher education framework. Universities can become a “holding” environment for transformation. This study underlines the importance of preparing young students as future professionals and citizens, by developing their critical reflection. A practical method is discussed and concerns the use and benefits of the aesthetic experience in a transformative learning procedure. The research presented here is based on the application of this method and aims to the reinforcement of specific dimensions of adulthood in a university environment. The application was carried out on students of the department of educational studies at a Greek regional university. One of the topics analyzed through art was the notion of “useful knowledge” and was part of a wider range of applications that concern the process of learning.
　　Keywords: critical reflection, art, higher education, transformative learning
　　 Introduction
　　The postmodern world is characterized by uncertainty. This uncertainty influences citizens in all aspects of their lives (personal, professional, social, etc.). According to Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007, p. 259), nothing can be interpreted in an absolute way; there is no single theoretical framework for examining social and political issues. In this frame, the self is not considered as unified and authentic but multiple and ever changing, under a continuous construction and reconstruction. Therefore, postmodernism can be seen either as a pessimistic and negative assessment of fragmentation or as a hopeful, tentative, and non-ideological one(Merriam et al., 2007, pp. 259-260).
　　The question arises intensively: How can people be prepared for this continuous changing? One of the suggestions presented in current literature is the development of critical reflection. As Merriam et al. (2007) observed, in postmodern societies “to fight the hegemony of the system, citizens must engage in rational discourse about sources of power, knowledge, and oppression in the hope of redressing the current imbalance between the powers of the lifeworld versus the system” (p. 250).
　　Educational environment can play a major role in this domain. The need for the development of critical reflection is noted in the higher education framework, where the reconsideration of traditional educational methods seems imperative. The questions seek for an answer: How do we learn? What do we learn? What is important for us to learn? It is important at this level of education to evaluate knowledge before endorsing it, as the students are tomorrow’s citizens, who will be undertaking essential roles in society.
　　 The Evolution of Consciousness and the Role of University as a Transformative Environment
　　While we grow up we construct our experiences in a mental organization. According to Kegan, there are five orders of consciousness, from the simpler and more atomistic (in young ages) to the most complicated, composite and critically reflected. To understand this, first we must think how we construct knowledge. “Definition” is a minimum way of categorizing knowledge, because it takes the concrete example as an instance or an element of a bigger principle of knowing that includes all the concrete examples. So, examples are an element not the principle itself. Therefore, reflective thinking requires a mental “place” to stand apart from, or outside of a durably created idea and “bend back” our attention to focus on our own products (Kegan, 1994, pp. 26-27).
　　Mental organization has an inner logic, an “epistemologic”. The root of any principle of mental organization is the subject-object relationship. Kegan claims that “subject” refers to those elements of our knowing that we are identified with, tied to, fused with, or embedded in. We cannot control or reflect upon what is subject. On the other hand, “object” refers to those elements of our knowing that we can reflect on, handle, look at, be responsible for, relate to each other, take control of, internalize, assimilate, or operate upon. All these expressions suggest that the element of knowing is not the whole of us, but it is distinct enough from us that we can do something with it. We have object but we are subject. Subject is absolute, but object is relative. Subject is immediate but object is mediate. Only if the adolescent reaches an upper order of consciousness can move from being the subject to being the object of one’s experiencing (Kegan, 1994, p. 32).
　　Therefore, this transmition from subject to object is not an easy procedure. In fact, there is a necessity for provision of an effective support. Such support constitutes a holding environment that provides both welcoming acknowledgment to exactly who the person is right now as he/she is, and fosters the person’s developmental transformation or the process by which the whole (“how I am”) becomes gradually a part (“how I was”) of a new whole (“how I am now”) (Kegan, 1994, p. 43).
　　Universities could and should be such a holding environment. They should because, according to research, almost no one of the undergraduate students reaches the upper order of consciousness (Kegan, 1994, p. 292). Therefore, the necessity of fostering critical thinking arises intensively, if we consider the challenges students have to face right after completing their studies. But how university could become a transformative environment?
　　 The Necessity of Critical Thinking in Higher Education
　　Focusing on higher education, it is mentioned that when educating students, it is important to emphasize not only on the content of the lesson, but on the learning process as well (Halx, 2010). As Kegan (1994) stated, “…The expectations upon us… demand something more than mere behavior, the acquisition of specific skills or the mastery of particular knowledge. They make demands on our minds, on how we know, on the complexity of our consciousness” (p. 5). Besides, one of the main goals in higher education is the evaluation of knowledge from students before “consuming” it (Tsui, 2003, p. 328). This means that is useful for students to learn to think critically and evaluate the knowledge that is offered to them, before evolving in society, playing functional and leadership roles.
　　This effort, however, comes across some obstacles within the formal educational system, where in some cases and especially in Greece, the adhesion to traditional education is evident. Students are used to conventional and traditional ways of education, beginning from their early schooldays on through to the University, with some differentiations, but without any significant deviations. Therefore, they are not familiar with non-formal forms of education which promote critical thinking, such as the educational activity suggested herein.
　　Another obstacle is the level of maturity of the students. This issue (Jarvis, 2004, pp. 51-54, 82-90), pertains to the fact that students may be adults at age; they are however going through the period of early adulthood, which means that there is a possibility that they share several characteristics of minors (lack of autonomy, formulation of personal and social identity, etc.). According to Knowles (1998, pp. 61-62), even though the knowledge provided at universities, which belong to the field of formal education, is addressed to adults, it is not considered adult education, as students are treated not as adults.
　　But how do we define adulthood? The word adolescence and adult both come from the same Latin verb, adolescere, which means “to grow up”. By looking what a culture asks its youth to “grow up to”, we can discover that culture’s definition of adulthood, the implication being that the culmination of adolescence constitutes adulthood (Kegan, 1994, p. 20). But Kegan questions if this is true today and mainly, asks how we want an adolescent’s mind to change.
　　 Transformative Learning Through Aesthetic Experience
　　In this study, we examine the efficiency of an innovative method named transformative learning through aesthetic experience. Deriving from the field of adult education, the method that has been introduced by Kokkos(2010) is based on the theoretical approach of transformative learning. According to this approach, the way we interpret reality is determined by our habits of mind (Lintzeris, 2007, pp. 48-49). The main goal of adult learning is to help learners reevaluate the foundations of their dysfunctional perceptions and question the validity of those that are problematic, in order to develop a more viable image of the world and their position in it (Kokkos, 2005, pp. 75-76). The means to achieve that is reflection, the process of re-examining perceptions and values, which form the way we understand reality and act (Mezirow, 1998).
　　A very efficient way in fostering critical thinking is art. Studies have shown that art can be a useful tool for the reinforcement of the transformative process (Cranton, 2006). Works of art can facilitate thinking through the critical observation needed for their interpretation. As Dewey (1934) suggested, art functions as a means in order to express meanings that are embodied in the work of art. At the same time, the work of art consists of broader and deeper meanings compared to the usual experiences of everyday life, so we need to use our imagination in order to interpret it. As he (1934) quoted: “Imagination is the only gateway through which these meanings can find their way into a present interaction; or rather… the conscious adjustment of the new and the old is imagination” (p. 283).
　　Imagination is a means for compassion, to step into another individuals’ position and see alternative realities, thus the realities of others, leaving data and definitions behind (Greene, 2000, p. 94). Searching through art helps to discover cultural differences and new prospective for the world we live in. Things we take for granted are often revealed in unexpected ways though a work of art (Greene, 2000, pp. 101-104, 128-133).
　　The method suggested here is based on the theoretical frame of Freire on approaching ideas holistically, through the aesthetic experience. One of the basic techniques for gradually deepening in the piece of art is Perkins’ (1994) “Intelligent Eye”, a technique for the systematic observation of works of art. This method uses the aesthetic experience without replacing other techniques for the development of critical thinking. This means that art observation can be combined with several techniques, such as brainstorming, role play, case study, etc.
　　The stages of the teaching method are six. The first stage refers to the identification of educational needs. At this stage, an effort is made in order to determine the existing needs on critical inquiry of the participant’s stereotypical assumptions on a specific subject, while an interest on the subject is also encouraged. At the second stage, an inquiry on the participants’ assumptions takes place. The participants express their assumptions on the subject, individually and as a group. After that, the formulation of subthemes and questions revealed follows (this is the third stage). The educator examines the answers and indentifies the subthemes that should be addressed holistically and critically, in order to reevaluate the opinions stated. At the fourth stage, the educator selects several works of art to serve as a stimulus for the elaboration of the subthemes. The works of art can be paintings, sculptures, photographs, literature, poetry, theatre, music, etc., while their meanings should be connected to the subthemes. Then the educator presents the works of art to the participants. By gradually going deeper and analyzing the works of art, the participants are able to approach the various subthemes from different perspectives. After completing the procedure, the opportunity is given to the participants to re-evaluate their initial assumptions and observe any changes.
　　 An Application Example
　　This method was applied to student of a regional Greek University (Department of Educational Sciences and Early Childhood Education, University of Patras). Our aim was to make them think about learning process in universities and their preparation as tomorrow citizens and professionals. What do they learn? What is useful for them to know? How should they perceive knowledge in higher education? The themes that were addressed to them were part of a wider cycle of applications concerning the learning process. We must note that the research is still in progress and here we present only some of the first results.
　　The first meeting began with an introductory discussion on the subject of learning. This is the first stage of the teaching method, whose goal is to investigate the educational needs of the participants as well as to encourage their interest on the subject. During the discussion, an effort was made to emphasize on the assumptions the students had formed from their experiences in the field of education. Through the exchange of ideas, it seemed evident that their thoughts were confused. Some opinions needed to be clarified, others to be reassessed and others to be reinforced. The points that called for an intervention were highlighted and the subthemes that would be worked on were defined.
　　After the first discussion, the second stage followed, where the learners were asked to formulate their assumptions on the subject, in a more systematic way, individually, and in writing. After that, they expressed their views and shared them with the group. The analytical elaboration of the student’s answers lead to the identification of assumptions, which the author felt needed further elaboration (this phase was the third stage of the procedure). Some of these issues were the concept of useful knowledge, the behavioral modification, and the transmition of values according to society’s norms. These issues are connected with the professional development of students and their future integration as functional members in society.
　　After that, works of art were chosen that had the potential to be used as an incentive for our subjects. The elaboration of the artworks (fifth stage) was done through a series of workshops. During this procedure, the topics of interest were analyzed through the observation of artworks while the observation technique of the artworks was mostly based on Perkins’ (1994) method. For instance, one of the subthemes was the definition of useful knowledge. The artworks chosen for this topic were some excerpts (“A Bird in the Schoolyard”(Kazantzakis, 1961) (famous Greek writer) and “Days of Reading” (Proust, 1909)), a poem (“Every Year in September” (Brecht, 1937)) and a painting ( “School of Athens” (Raffaello, 1511)). After the elaboration of the artworks, the participants were given the questionnaire they had answered at the first meeting. They were asked to review the answers they had given and to answer again, in order to notice any changes that may have occurred on their initial assumptions after the series of interventions that took place.
　　From the participant’s answers to the final questionnaire as well as from the discussions that took place during the application of this teaching method, it was evident that in many cases, there was a shift from the initial assumptions as stated in the beginning. These differences could be considered as transitions to more elaborated opinions that went through a reflective procedure.
　　Examining some representative opinions that were expressed on definition of useful knowledge, we conclude that initially they considered useful knowledge what would help the student progress to a next level(to obtain good marks, to move up to the next grade, to move to the level of higher education, etc.).
　　Georgia: “The goal of learning is to ‘transmit’ knowledge to the children that will help them in their future course in school”.
　　Athina: “The goal of education is to provide children with all the necessary skills they will need in their lives …These skills pertain to progressing in the educational levels they will follow”.
　　Maria: “The objective of every student is a good mark at the end of the year”. (personal communication, 2010)
　　However, during the last phase, the knowledge that was considered “useful” was based on motives, the personal needs and skills of the learner. The objective of this type of knowledge is the holistic development of the individual, rather than good marks.
　　Georgia: “The aim is for the student to evolve as a person, to reach a better self”.
　　Athina: “I think I should be more conscious when reflecting on the teacher’s role and the type of knowledge offered in a learning experience. … In any case, the students and the development of their potentials must be in the centre of it”.
　　Maria: “The good mark is not the objective but the reward and perhaps the motive. The important is the knowledge that remains after the good mark and the degree that this knowledge is helpful for the personal development of the student”. (personal communication, 2010)
　　 Conclusions
　　From the answers given by learners participating in the application of this teaching method, as well as from the different subjects that were discussed during the process, we noted several alterations in their initial assumptions. Through the process of analyzing artworks, in combination with their own relevant experiences that were withdrawn from their memories, participants felt like they were actually “living” the situations under question. The procedure had a strong impact on their assumptions.
　　Although this research is still in progress, it is possible at this point to acknowledge a shift of thought among the participants, from an instrumental to a more emancipatory conceptualization of learning. According to Cranton (2006):
　　Emancipatory knowledge is fostered through a variety of reformist educator roles. Critical questioning, the presentation of diverse points of view, the examination of existing social norms and the exploration of alternative and radical perspectives helps students become more open in their views and free from the constraints of unquestioned assumptions. (p. 116)
　　In conclusion, the evaluation of the method applied showed that it does facilitate the achievement of educational goals and the role of art is approved of vital importance. Therefore, we can assume that universities could become transformative environments. If one of the main objectives of the education is for students to shift from being subject to being object, then this research offers some examples how to do it. Enriching the variety of pedagogical practices, introducing active learning, fostering critical thinking of students, cultivating freedom of speech, fantasy and thought, and being open to multiple interpretations are some efficient ways of turning university to a “holding” environment that could support future citizens’ developmental transformation.
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