Work with cereals (barley and wheat) and a legume (Medicago truncatula) has established thioredoxin h (Trx h) as a central regulatory protein of seeds.Trx h acts by reducing disulfide (S-S) groups of diverse seed proteins (storage proteins,enzymes,and enzyme inhibitors),thereby facilitating germination.Early in vitro protein studies were comple-mented with experiments in which barley seeds with Trx h overexpressed in the endosperm showed accelerated germi-nation and early or enhanced expression of associated enzymes (α-amylase and pullulanase).The current study extends the transgenic work to wheat.Two approaches were followed to alter the expression of Trx h genes in the endosperm:(1) a hordein promoter and its protein body targeting sequence led to overexpression of Trx hS,and (2) an antisense construct of Trx h9 resulted in cytosolic underexpression of that gene (Arabidopsis designation).Underexpression of Trx h9 led toeffects opposite to those observed for overexpression Trx h5 in barley-retardation of germination and delayed or reduced expression of associated enzymes.Similar enzyme changes were observed in developing seeds.The wheat lines with underexpressed Trx showed delayed preharvest sprouting when grown in the greenhouse or field without a decrease in final yield.Wheat with overexpressed Trx h5 showed changes commensurate with earlier in vitro work:increased sol-ubility of disulfide proteins and lower allergenicity of the gliadin fraction.The results are further evidence that the level of Trx h in cereal endosperm determines fundamental properties as well as potential applications of the seed.