The molecular characterization of various cancers has shown that cancers with the same origins,histopathologic diagnoses,and clinical stages can be highly heterogeneous in their genetic and epigenetic alterations that cause tumorigenesis.A number of cancer driver genes with functional abnormalities that trigger malignant transformation and that are required for the survival of cancer cells have been identified.Therapeutic agents targeting some of these cancer drivers have been successfully developed,resulting in substantial improvements in clinical symptom amelioration and outcomes in a subset of cancer patients.However,because such therapeutic drugs often benefit only a limited number of patients,the successes of clinical development and applications rely on the ability to identify those patients who are sensitive to the targeted therapies.Thus,biomarkers that can predict treatment responses are critical for the success of precision therapy for cancer patients and of anticancer drug development.This review discusses the molecular heterogeneity of lung cancer pathogenesis;predictive biomarkers for precision medicine in lung cancer therapy with drugs targeting epidermal growth factor receptor(EGFR),anaplastic lymphoma kinase(ALK),c-ros oncogene 1 receptor tyrosine kinase[ROSl),and immune checkpoints;biomarkers associated with resistance to these therapeutics;and approaches to identify predictive biomarkers in anticancer drug development.The identification of predictive biomarkers during anticancer drug development is expected to greatly facilitate such development because it will increase the chance of success or reduce the attrition rate.Additionally,such identification will accelerate the drug approval process by providing effective patient stratification strategies in clinical trials to reduce the sample size required to demonstrate clinical benefits. The molecular characterization of various cancers has shown that cancers with the same origins, histopathologic diagnoses, and clinical stages can be highly heterogeneous in their genetic and epigenetic alterations that cause tumorigenesis. A number of cancer driver genes with functional abnormalities that trigger malignant transformation and that are required for the survival of cancer cells have been identified. Therapeutic agents targeting some of these cancer drivers have been successfully developed, resulting in substantial improvements in clinical symptom amelioration and outcomes in a subset of cancer patients. Host, because such therapeutic drugs often benefit only a limited number of patients, the successes of clinical development and applications rely on the ability to identify those patients who are sensitive to the targeted therapies.Thus, biomarkers that can predict treatment responses are critical for the success of precision therapy for cancer patients and of anticancer drug d evelopment. This review discusses the molecular heterogeneity of lung cancer pathogenesis; predictive biomarkers for precision medicine in lung cancer therapy with drugs targeting epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK), c-ros oncogene 1 receptor tyrosine kinase [ROSl ), and immune checkpoints; and biomarkers associated with resistance to these therapeutics; and approaches to identify predictive biomarkers in anticancer drug development. The identification of predictive biomarkers during anticancer drug development is expected to greatly facilitate such development because it will increase the chance of success or reduce the attrition rate .Additionally, such identification will accelerate the drug approval process by providing effective patient stratification strategies in clinical trials to reduce the sample size required to demonstrate clinical benefits.