Racism refers to a variety of practices， beliefs， social relations， and phenomena that work to reproduce a racial hierarchy and social structure that yield superiority， power， and privilege for some， and discrimination and oppression for others. It can take several forms， including representational， ideological， discursive， interactional， institutional， structural， and systemic.
　　Racism exists when ideas and assumptions about racial categories are used to justify and reproduce a racial hierarchy and racially structured society that unjustly limits access to resources， rights， and privileges on the basis of race. Racism also occurs when this kind of unjust social structure is produced by the failure to account for race and its historical and contemporary roles in society.
　　Contrary to a dictionary definition， racism， as defined based on social science research and theory， is about much more than race-based prejudice—it exists when an imbalance in power and social status is generated by how we understand and act upon race.
　　The 7 forms of racism
　　Racism takes seven main forms， according to social science. Rarely does any one exist on its own. Instead， racism typically operates as a combination of at least two forms working together， simultaneously. Independently and together， these seven forms of racism work to reproduce racist ideas， racist interactions and behavior， racist practices and policies， and an overall racist social structure.
　　Representational racism
　　Depictions of racial stereotypes are common in popular culture and media， like the historical tendency to cast people of color as criminals and as victims of crime rather than in other roles， or as background characters rather than as leads in film and television. Also common are racial caricatures that are racist in their representations， like “mascots” for the Cleveland Indians， Atlanta Braves， and the Washington Redskins1.
　　The power of representational racism—or racism expressed in how racial groups are represented within popular culture—is that it encapsulates a whole range of racist ideas that imply inferiority， and often stupidity and untrustworthiness， in images that circulate society and permeate our culture. While those not directly harmed by representational racism might not take it seriously， the presence of such images and our interaction with them on a near-constant basis helps to keep alive the racist ideas attached to them.
　　Ideological racism 　　Ideology is a word that sociologists use to refer to the world views， beliefs， and common-sense ways of thinking that are normal in a society or culture. So， ideological racism is a kind of racism that colors and manifests in those things. It refers to world views， beliefs， and common-sense ideas that are rooted in racial stereotypes and biases. A troubling example is the fact that many people in American society， regardless of their race， believe that white and light skinned people are more intelligent than dark-skinned people and superior in a variety of other ways.
　　Historically， this particular form of ideological racism supported and justified the building of European colonial empires and U.S. imperialism through the unjust acquisition of land， people， and resources around the world. Today， some common ideological forms of racism include the belief that Black women are sexually promiscuous， that Latina women are “fiery” or “hot-tempered，” and that black men and boys are criminally oriented. This form of racism has a negative impact on people of color as a whole because it works to deny them access to and/or success within education and the professional world， and subjects them to heightened police surveillance， harassment， and violence， among other negative outcomes.
　　Discursive racism
　　Racism is often expressed linguistically， in the “discourse” we use to talk about the world and people in it. This kind of racism is expressed as racial slurs and hate speech， but also as code words that have racialized meanings embedded in them， like “ghetto，” “thug，” or “gangsta.” Just as representational racism communicates racist ideas through images， discursive racism communicates them through the actual words we use to describe people and places. Using words that rely on stereotypical racial differences to communicate explicit or implicit hierarchies perpetuates the racist inequalities that exist in society.
　　Interactional racism
　　Racism often takes an interactional form， which means it is expressed in how we interact with each other. For example， a white or Asian woman walking on a sidewalk may cross the street to avoid passing closely by a black or Latino man because she is implicitly biased to see these men as potential threats. When a person of color is verbally or physically assaulted because of their race， this is interactional racism. When a neighbor calls the police to report a break-in because they do not recognize their black neighbor， or when someone automatically assumes that a person of color is a low-level employee or an assistant， though they might be a manager， executive， or owner of a business， this is interactional racism. Hate crimes are the most extreme manifestation of this form of racism. Interactional racism causes stress， anxiety， and emotional and physical harm to people of color on a daily basis. 　　Institutional racism
　　Racism takes institutional form in the ways that policies and laws are crafted and put into practice through society’s institutions， such as the decades-long set of policing and legal policies known as “The War on Drugs，” which has disproportionately targeted neighborhoods and communities that are composed predominantly of people of color. Other examples include New York City’s Stop-N-Frisk2 policy that overwhelmingly targets black and Latino males， the practice among real estate agents and mortgage lenders of not allowing people of color to own property in certain neighborhoods and that force them to accept less desirable mortgage rates， and educational tracking policies that funnel children of color into remedial classes3 and trades programs4. Institutional racism preserves and fuels the racial gaps in wealth， education， and social status， and serves to perpetuate white supremacy and privilege.
　　Structural racism
　　Structural racism refers to the ongoing， historical， and long-term reproduction of the racialized structure of our society through a combination of all of the above forms. Structural racism manifests in widespread racial segregation and stratification on the basis of education， income， and wealth， the recurrent displacement of people of color from neighborhoods that go through processes of gentrification5， and the overwhelming burden of environmental pollution borne by people of color given its proximity to their communities6. Structural racism results in large-scale， society-wide inequalities on the basis of race.
　　Systemic racism
　　Many sociologists describe racism in the U.S. as “systemic” because the country was founded on racist beliefs that created racist policies and practices， and because that legacy lives today in the racism that courses throughout the entirety of our social system. This means that racism was built into the very foundation of our society， and because of this， it has influenced the development of social institutions， laws， policies， beliefs， media representations， and behaviors and interactions， among many other things. By this definition， the system itself is racist， so effectively addressing racism requires a system-wide approach that leaves nothing unexamined.
　　Racism in sum
　　Sociologists observe a variety of styles or types of racism within these seven different forms. Some may be overtly racist， like the use of racial slurs or hate speech， or policies that intentionally discriminate against people on the basis of race. Others may be covert， kept to oneself， hidden from public view， or obscured by color-blind policies that purport to be race-neutral， though they have racist impacts. While something may not appear obviously racist at first glance， it may， in fact， prove to be racist when one examines the implications of it through a sociological lens. If it relies on stereotypical notions of race and reproduces a racially structured society， then it is racist. 　　Due to the sensitive nature of race as a topic of conversation in American society， some have come to think that simply noticing race， or identifying or describing someone using race， is racist. Sociologists do not agree with this. In fact， many sociologists， race scholars， and anti-racist activists emphasize the importance of recognizing and accounting for race and racism as necessary in the pursuit of social， economic， and political justice.
　　种族主义指的是各种行为、观念、社会关系及现象，在它们的作用下，重构出的一种种族等级制度和社会结构让一些人从中得到优势、权力和特权，却让另一些人遭受歧视与压迫。种族主义有数种形式，包括表现种族主义、意识形态种族主义、话语种族主义、相互种族主义、制度种族主义、结构种族主义以及系统种族主义。
　　有关种族有别的观念及假设被用来重构某种社会——这种社会按种族设立等级及架构，基于种族不公地限制资源、权益与特权的分配——并将其合理化时，种族主义便产生了。种族主义还出现于人们未能解释种族及其在历史和当代所扮演的社会角色，从而导致这类不公平的社会结构产生之时。
　　与词典里的定义相反，根据社会科学研究及理论定义的种族主义，远不止是基于种族产生的偏见——若我们理解种族的方式以及基于种族做出的行为引起权力与社会地位失衡，那它就会出现。
　　种族主义的七种形式
　　从社会科学层面上说，种族主义有七种主要形式。这些形式很少单独存在。相反，种族主义通常以至少两种形式组合并同时运作。无论是独立存在还是共同出现，这七种形式的种族主义都会再现种族主义思想、种族主义交互与行为、种族主义惯例做法与政策，以及一种总体的种族主义社会结构。
　　表现种族主义
　　在流行文化和媒体中，对种族成见的描述十分常见，例如在影视行业，素来就有让有色人种扮演罪犯或受害者而非其他角色，或者担任配角而非主演的趋向。表现方式颇具种族主义意味的滑稽形象同样屡见不鲜，例如克利夫兰印第安人队、亚特兰大勇士队以及华盛顿红皮队的“吉祥物”。
　　表现种族主义——或者说通过流行文化中描述不同种族的手法来表达的种族主义——能在流传于社会、渗透进我们文化的形象中注入形形色色的种族主义理念，这些理念暗示某些种族低人一等，还经常影射他们愚笨且不可靠。未被表现种族主义直接伤害到的人们或许会对它满不在乎，然而这类形象的存在，以及我们与它们几乎无时无刻的接触，使得依附其中的种族主义思想得以存续。
　　意识形态种族主义
　　社会学家用意识形态一词指代某个社会或文化中典型的世界观、信仰和常识性思维方式。所以，意识形态种族主义是一种影响上述范畴并于其中表现出来的种族主义。它指的是根植于种族成见与偏见的世界观、信仰和常识性思想。举个令人不安的例子：美国社会中许多人（不分种族）都认为，白种人和肤色较浅的人种比肤色深的人种更聪明，并且在许多其他方面更具优势。
　　历史上，通过在世界各地不公正地获取土地、人口和资源，这种特殊形式的意识形态种族主义为欧洲殖民帝国的建立和美国帝国主义提供了支持与辩护。而在今天，一些常见的意识形态种族主义包括“黑人女性私生活混乱”“拉美裔女性‘性格暴躁’或‘脾气不好’”“黑人男子和男孩有犯罪倾向”等观念。这一形态的种族主义对全体有色人种都产生了负面影响，因为它剥夺了他们获得教育和进入职业领域的通道和/或在其中获得成功的机会，并让他们遭受加重的警察监控、骚扰及暴力等负面结果。
　　话语种族主义
　　在语言学层面，种族主义通常出现在我们谈论世界和世界人民时所用到的“话语”中。这类种族主义会被表述为种族辱称和仇恨言论，但也会作为带有种族化含义的密语出现，例如ghetto（贫民窟）、thug（恶棍）或gangsta（帮派）。正如表现种族主义通过形象传达种族主义思想，话语种族主义借助的是我们实际用来描述人和地点的字眼。使用依赖于种族差异成见的字眼来传达显性或隐性的等级观念，会延续社会中存在的种族不平等现象。
　　相互种族主义
　　种族主义经常以相互作用的形式出现，这意味着它会表现在我们彼此互动的方式之中。例如，一位走在人行道上的白人女性或者亚裔女性可能会横穿马路，以免近距离走过一位黑人男性或拉美裔男性身旁，因为她内心倾向于将这类男性视作潜在威胁。如果一位有色群体人士因其种族而遭受言语上或身体上的攻击，那这就是相互种族主义。如果一个人因为没有认出黑人邻居而报警称遭遇非法闯入，又或者有人下意识假定某位有色群体人士是低级雇员或助理——虽然他有可能是一位经理、高管或老板——那这就是相互种族主义。仇恨犯罪是此类型种族主义的最极端表现。日常生活中，相互种族主义给有色群体人士带来了压力和焦虑，造成了身心伤害。
　　制度种族主义
　　制度种族主义表现在通过社会制度制定并落实政策与法律的方式中，例如耗时数十年制定治安及法律政策的“毒品战争”，它在很大程度上将矛头指向了主要由有色人种组成的街区和群体。其他的例子还包括纽约市明显针对黑人男性和拉美裔男性的“拦截搜身”政策，房地产中介和抵押贷款公司不允许有色人种在特定街区拥有住宅、强制其接受较高房贷利率的惯例，以及將有色人种的孩子编入差生补习班和职业学校的教育分流政策。制度种族主义会维持并加剧不同种族在财富、教育和社会地位上的差距，还会延续白人至上主义和白人特权。 　　结构种族主义
　　结构种族主义指的是通过上述所有形态的组合，在当前、历史上和长远的将来复现种族化社会结构。结构种族主义体现在基于教育、收入和财富水平而广泛存在的种族隔离与阶层分化，也体现在有色人种一再搬离中产阶级化街区，以及有色群体人士因其社区距离环境污染区域太近而承受着巨大负担。结构种族主义会导致基于种族的大规模全社会不平等现象。
　　系统种族主义
　　许多社会學家将美国的种族主义描述为“系统性的”，因为美国建立在种族主义观念的基础之上，而这些观念创造了许多种族主义政策和惯例;也因为该传统时至今日仍然存续于贯穿我们整个社会系统的种族主义之中。这意味着种族主义已嵌入我们社会的根基，也正因如此，它影响了社会制度、法律、政策、信仰、媒体表现和行为互动等诸多方面的发展。根据这一定义，这个系统本身就是种族主义的，因此有效地解决种族主义需要一种能覆盖整个系统、不会遗漏任何细枝末节的方法。
　　总结
　　社会学家在这七种形态下观察到了各种风格或类型的种族主义。有些可能是明显的种族主义，比如使用种族辱称或仇恨言论，或者基于种族故意歧视他人的政策。另一些则可能是隐秘的，限于自己的内心，藏在公众视线之外，或被自称是种族中立的“色盲政策”所掩盖，凡此种种都会产生种族主义影响。虽然有些东西乍看起来并未表现明显的种族主义，但事实上，从社会学的视角审视它的含义时，它却有可能是种族主义。如果它依赖于有关种族的陈旧观念，且再现了一个种族结构化社会，那么它就是种族主义。
　　由于种族是美国社会的一大敏感话题，一些人已经开始觉得，仅仅注意到种族，或者用种族来识别或描述某人就是种族主义。社会学家不同意这一点。事实上，许多社会学家、种族学者和反种族主义积极人士都强调承认和解释种族及种族主义的重要性，认为这是追求社会、经济和政治正义的必要条件。
　　（译者为“《英语世界》杯”翻译大赛获奖者）
　　1克利夫兰印第安人队和亚特兰大勇士队均为美国职业棒球大联盟的球队，前者的吉祥物为瓦荷酋长，后者的吉祥物原本是由真人扮演的印第安人霍默（Homer），近年已改为争议较小的毛绒怪物，但仍然手持象征原住民文化的红色战斧。华盛顿红皮队为美国职业橄榄球大联盟的球队，其吉祥物为红皮肤的印第安酋长;近日迫于美国种族矛盾激化，该队暂更名为华盛顿橄榄球队（Washington Football Team），并承诺将改变队徽及吉祥物。
　　2自从1968年转折性的“特里诉俄亥俄州案”（Terry vs. Ohio）以来，美国警察便可以合法进行“拦截搜身”，即允许警察对街上的任何人进行拦截、盘查和搜身，只要他们能提供怀疑对方正在犯罪或将要实施犯罪的合理依据。2012年，纽约警察局因频频使用“拦截搜身”而受到审查。自此，该政策经历了数次修改。  3在欧美国家和日、韩等国，成绩较差的中学生在继续深造之前，会被要求进入“补习班”，弥补其数学、阅读、英语等基础学科的不足。  4指职业学校。
　　5城市通过提供巨大的减税优惠等措施，来吸引开发商、高科技产业及创新阶层——包括艺术家、知识分子和受过大学教育的千禧一代，促使白人开始反向流动，从郊区迁往城市，导致城市住房成本上升、财富集中在少数人手中、贫富差距拉大。这一城市中产阶级化过程迫使部分人群转移到远离公共交通、就业机会、基础服务和优质学校的恶劣郊区。  6此处涉及环境种族主义（Environmental racism），指环境污染物与低收入或少数族裔社区间存在地理上的联系。数据表明，在美国有毒物场所越集中的地方，少数族裔的比例就越高。