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【摘 要】As we know that people usually express their feelings or emotions with the plants or animals however the same thing in different culture often has different connotations.
【关键词】culture； connotation； language；words
Language is a part of culture and plays a very important role in it. Some social scientists consider it the keystone of culture. Without language， they maintain， culture would not be possible. On the other hand， language is influenced and shaped by culture， and it reflects culture as well. In the broadest sense， language is the symbolic representation of a people， and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking. And as vocabulary is the basic element of a language， culture difference can be most readily shown on the vocabulary of different languages.
Generally speaking there are two mainstream cultures in the world， i.e. western culture and Chinese culture. People from different countries and China may have different understanding of many things due to different geographical background， custom， religion， means of value， etc. And this difference can be found in the language they speak， i.e. English and Chinese. In English and Chinese vocabulary one may find some names of animals plants that contain cultural connotations， such as the word dragon in western culture and the Chinese dragon， owl， willow， bamboo， phoenix， etc.
In English and Chinese there are some words that may superficially mean the same， but once put in the culture environment， they would contain absolutely different connotations. Some animals or plants may originally existed only in one particular place， while people of other places would find it hard to understand them， as there is no such image in their mind， such as “litchi” and “tea” in China. People may find that some animals or plants of one culture look very alike with those of another culture， but actually they are totally different， such as the animal “dragon” in western culture and the Chinese dragon. Still one may find the same animal or plant in different cultures， but as they belong to different cultures， their culture connotations are also different. Animals and plants like the owl， the willow and the bamboo are such a case.
First， let us look at what a dragon is. In western culture， a dragon is a huge lizard that has two wings， scales and shells and a snake's tail. It can produce fire from its mouth. During the Medieval Age， the dragon was the symbol of evil. It can eat human beings and animals and threaten people's life by bringing out fire and floods. Therefore in western culture and literature， the dragon has a very bad image. In the Bible， Santa， a devil fighting against God， was called as “the great dragon” Some very famous heroes and religious sages gained their reputation by killing wild and cruel dragons. In the first English epic The Song of Beowulf， the great national hero Beowulf saved his people and obtained a large amount of treasure by killing a dragon. So we can see that “dragon” in general a very cruel and evil animal that symbols the devil. In China ，“龙 ”or we call “the Chinese dragon” is a totally different animal. Actually it is not a real one. Being a totem originally， the Chinese dragon was invented by the Chinese people during the history. It is a sacred animal， having the features of many other animals such as snake， fish， deer， etc. As it is believed that the Chinese dragon can bring about wind and rainfall， go to the heaven and dive into deep water， the Chinese people regard it as their totem. People respect and owe it and play dragon-boat and make dragon-lantern on special days to show their happiness. And as the Chinese dragon is regarded as a sacred animal， it was always regarded as the symbol of the emperor in the feudal society. The emperor was called as a “real dragon”（真龙天子），his children and grand children as the offspring of the Chinese dragon（龙子龙孙），his clothes as the clothes of the Chinese dragon（龙袍），etc. Although one may find some evil and cruel dragons eating humans and bringing out disasters in Chinese classic， these dragons were of a small number and really counted nothing in the mainstream of Chinese culture.
Another animal that will be discussed is the owl. In western culture the owl can be used as a symbol of bad luck， danger， even death. In Shakespeare's Macbeth， there was a dialogue like this：
Macbeth： I have done the deed：——Didst thou not hear a noise？
Lady Macbeth： I hear the owl scream， and the cricket cry.——Did not you speak？
Here Lady Macbeth used the scream of the owl to tell her husband that she knew that Duncan had died. An owl in western culture can also be used as a symbol of wisdom. In English one may find the phrase “as wise as an owl”. And if one says someone is “owlish”， he means that that person is smart and serious. In west cartoon and books intended for children， the owl is usually a serious and wise bird to whom the judgment is asked to make on the quarrel between wild animals and to whom the help is asked for in time of emergency. Sometimes people may think that the owl is not so practical and clever， but generally speaking it is the symbol of wisdom.
The same animal word bears favorable meanings in English but derogatory meanings in Chinese
Take dog for example， in most cases， the word “dog” is favorable in its connotation in the English language. This is reflected in sayings like “Love me， love my dog”； “a lucky dog”. “To help a lame dog over the stile” means to help someone in difficulty. “Every dog has its day” means every person will some day succeed or become fortunate. But figures of speech like these are not proper in Chinese as the word 狗in most Chinese phrases are associated with some derogatory connotation， as is reflected in sayings like “狗急跳墙，狗头军师，狗仗人势，狐朋狗友，狗心狼肺，狗眼看人低，狗嘴里吐不出象牙，丧家之犬”，etc. In Greek and Roman mythology， owl always stays by the goddess of witness. It is invited to make a verdict on arguments between animals， especially on emergent occasions. Therefore， in English， owl is a bird standing for witness. Such as “as wise as an owl” Owlish refers to clever， shrewd. For example， Patrick peered owlishly at us through his glasses. However， in Chinese， owl is thought as a symbol of omen because it always flies around graveyard at night， sending out sad voice. In the old legend ，it is said that someone would die if the owl rest on his house . Owl is related to bad luck， death .There are many expressions showing people's view towards owl， such as “夜猫子进宅，无事不来”， “夜猫子抖翅，大小有点事”， “夜猫子进屋，全家都哭”，etc.
Whale is a huge animal， so in English it is a symbol of valuable things. The following examples proves it—— a whale of a chance（一个极好的机会）， whale on skating （滑冰高手）， a whale at tennis（善打网球的人）.However， in china， people pay little attention to its value but to its huge appetite. “蚕食鲸吞”means that a small country is embezzled like a silkworm eating little by little or like a whale swallowing.
The same animal word bears derogatory meanings in English but favorable meanings in Chinese
In Chinese， “猫” is a symbol of loveliness， shrewdness. Chinese people love cat because it is a lovely companion and it is a master in catching mice. Some ancient poets wrote poems to prize cats. But in English， cat is embodiment of devil. People detest cat， especially the black cat. In Chinese ， “喜鹊”is an auspicious bird .it is said that its voice brings good news as the following saying shows：
今朝闻鹊喜，家信必有归；
破颜看鹊喜，拭泪听猿啼；
鹊声喳喳宁有知，家人听鹊占归期.
What's more， its voice is the forest of fine weather， such as
鹊声宣日出
晴色喧从喜鹊知
It is proved that magpie can bring us good luck， whereas in English， it refers to wordy，garrulous people .for example：
She is a magpie of a woman.
She kept muttering like a magpie.
It is suggested that people in English speaking counties feel disgusted towards its voice. Besides， it stands for chaos， disorder. For example， “a magpie collection”， “to magpie together”. Apart from the above examples， there are many other animals， such as cricket， cuckoo， bat， petrel， and mouse， having favorable meanings in English but having derogatory meanings in Chinese.
Chinese people like to use the mandarin duck as the symbol for love because a mandarin couple always lives together in the water at ease. In a newly-married couple's room， there are many things with pictures about mandarin duck such as “鸳鸯帐”， “鸳鸯被”，“鸳鸯枕”.But the image of the mandarin duck in the phrase have to be translated into “love birds” as the mandarin duck is a kind of duck， which has no symbolic meaning at all in English. The English speaking people feel puzzled when they meet“你真熊”， “他太牛了”， “那个家伙简直象条泥鳅”.Because in English， bear has no symbolic meaning of stupidness or incompetence， neither cattle refers to stubbornness. There is no loach in most English speaking countries. So people do not think it as a kind of fish， let alone a cunning animal. Of course they can not understand the connotative meaning of “滑”as sly， tricky， diplomatic and so on.
Chinese people believe that tortoise can live for hundreds of years. So it is a symbol of a long life in Chinese culture. It is the reason that there are many carvings about tortoise on ancient palaces， temples and other buildings in china. On the other hand， tortoise has a very derogatory meaning. It is a terrible insult for somebody to be called “王八”， “乌龟王八蛋”.In English there are no such allusion whether with a favorable meaning or negative meaning.
Silkworm comes from china and the silk fabrics are very popular in foreign countries. Silk culture of china is known in the whole world as “丝绸之路”leads to western countries. Silkworm is spoken highly in the poem for its dedication .So cultural connotations of silkworm are endowed to Chinese whereas to most English speaking people， silkworm is， at most， a kind of small animal. Generally speaking， it is obvious to see the great influences of different cultures on animal words.
An animal word has English connotations but none in Chinese
It is difficult for Chinese people to understand some animal words because they have special meaning in English .For example， “as merry as a cricket”， “as cunning as a dead pig”， “as blind as a bat”， “as dumb as an oyster” and “as happy as a crow”， and so on.
“White elephant” refers to an animal with huge body， big ears long nose and sharp teeth in Chinese， however， in English it refers to huge but clumsy and useless things.
Buffalo has no connotative meanings in Chinese， whereas， in American English， an idiom “to buffalo” means. How it originated is released with “West Movement”. At that time， people in the west part of America hunted a great number of buffalo for the skin then they could get much money from leather trading. However， they found that it was not an easy job to hunt buffalo， so some people complained： “We are buffaloed.” Which means that they felt helpless. Then it evolves into threaten， menace.
In English， beaver is hard-working by nature and is known for building Den with branches of trees， stones and mud. “ ranger beaver” refers to a person who is diligent. “ goat” in English refers to a person who always does ***ual harassment towards women . “Duck” can to be used to a lovely person apart from the denotative meaning. “Cow” is a symbol of hardy and filthy. “A unicorn”， looking like horse but having only one horn， exists in the western legend. Which refers to something existing in name only. In Chinese， there is no animal word with such images， let alone corresponding cultural connotations. Besides， as far as chicken， goose， and ox are concerned， Chinese people consider them as common animals. Therefore， when they feel confused when thy come across the following sentences：
You are a chicken， that is why you will not climb the tree
You are a goose， how can you do that？
In the first sentence， we cannot get what the person said from the denotative meaning but from connotative meaning as “coward”. In the second sentence， goose suggest stupidness means fool.
Words vacancy is the evidence of national peculiarity of cultures in languages. Some animal words are endowed special cultural connotations in Chinese but none in English， or vice versa. This phenomenon will make people from two languages confused to some extent.
Different animal words have similar cultural connotations
In English and Chinese， some animal words have different referential meanings but they have similar or same cultural connotation， two different animal words from the two cultures respectively take on the same connotation. These words show that people in different cultures understand the objects by the same means and the phenomenon is related to their history to some extent. Some examples are presented as following：
In English， horse is also used often to refer to a person， such as a “willing horse”. Plain good sense is referred to as “horse sense”. In the Chinese language， there is no such allusions ，but “牛”is often used to refer to a person .A hardworking person is called a “老黄牛”. Lu Xun's saying of “俯首甘为孺子牛”is known to almost everybody in china. Because Chinese people have been using 牛in farming for thousands of years while horse has been used to do mostfarming work in Britain . Similarly， people of the two languages always use different animal words to express the same thought， especially in idioms as following：
落汤鸡 a drowned rat
鸡皮疙瘩 goose flesh
杀鸡取卵 kill the goose that lays the golden egg
瓮中之鳖 rat in a hole
胆小如鼠 chicken-hearted
蠢得象头猪 as stupid as a goose
象蜜蜂一样勤劳 as industrious as an ant
热锅上的蚂蚁 a cat on a hot tin roof
老虎的***摸不得 one should not twist the lion's tail
拦路虎 a lion in the way
深如虎穴 beard the lion in his den
狐假虎威 donkey in a lion's hide
非驴非马 neither fish nor fowl
吹牛 talk horse
牛饮 drink like a fish
公鸭嗓 as hoarse as a crow
过着牛马般的生活 lead a dog's life
But in Chinese culture the owl has the only symbol of bad luck and death. It is believed to have some relation with death and anyone who hears the scream of an owl would sooner or later find the death of one of his family members. As it more often that begins its activity at night and has a very unpleasant sound， the Chinese people usually call an welcoming visit as “an owl entering the house”. Apart from the animals， there are also some plants that embody with themselves culture connotations. First we will discuss the willow. In western culture the willow usually reminds people of weeping willow， which indicates death and mourning. This was the first shown in the Bible， Psalm137： A lament of Israelites in Exile/By the rivers of Babylon we sat down；/ there we wept when we remembered Anion， / On the willows nearby/ We hang up our harps （Good news Bible 1981：621）. Later in Shakespeare's Othello， Desdemona sang a “song of willow” to express her sorrowness， which also implied her death afterwards. In Dryden's Secret love， we can also find the graveness of willow “If you had not forsaken me， I had you. / so the willow may flourish for many branches I shall rob'em of ”（ 王左良 1983：737）.By contrast， in Chinese culture the willow is usually related with departing and the feeling of missing some one. In China's first collection of poems book of songs， one may find poems like when I set out so long ago/ Fresh and green was the willow/ When/ now homeward I go / There is a heavy snow （昔我往矣，杨柳依依。今我来斯，雨雪霏霏），which gives one a vivid impression of how soldiers defending the frontier missed their home and relatives. And history has seen many Chinese poets who wrote willow in their poems to express their emotion of missing. The reason why the willow has such a culture meaning is that willow （柳） in Chinese language sounds very much like another Chinese word “留”， which means staying. During the long history of using the two words “willow （柳） ” and “staying”（留）， the willow gradually bestows the meaning of hoping a friend to stay for a longer time and not to depart so hastily. And it is typical of Chinese tradition for people to give a branch of willow to departing friends and relatives as a wish for them， to stay for a longer time.
Another plant is the bamboo. In western countries the bamboo has scarcely any other cultural meanings， even in the English language the word “bamboo” is borrowed from Malay （bamboo）， as the bamboo is not an aboriginal plant in England. The British are not so familiar with this plant， therefore there is almost no cultural connotation in this word. But in Chinese， the word “bamboo” has very strong cultural connotations. The Chinese has long been planting and using bamboo in their daily life. The bamboo can be used to make food， house， boat， clothes， paper and shoes， etc. The Chinese people have found out some of the bamboo during the history of using it， for example， it is hollow inside but very hard when used， and it grows up upright. These peculiarities of the bamboo go hand in hand with traditional Chinese values， such as being moderate strong-hearted and fair-minded. Therefore bamboo can be found almost everywhere in China. In addition， in old times many people regarded themselves as bamboo-like people. They called themselves after the name of the bamboo， hoping that they would have a bamboo-like character， i.e. being moderate， strong-heated and fair-minded in their life. Apart from the dragon， the owl， the willow and the bamboo， one may also find other animals and plants that are bestowed with cultural connotations. For example， in Chinese culture， Phoenix is a sacred bird that has the snake's neck， fish's tail， the Chinese dragon's skin and tortoise's body. It is the king of all birds and has the connotation of prosperity and celebration. But in western culture the phoenix is a bird living in Arabian desert which will burn itself after 500 years of life. Then a new phoenix will come out from the ashes. So phoenix in western culture has the connotation of rebirth and a new life. Another example is the daffodil. The daffodil in Chinese culture is only a only a flower and has scarcely any cultural meanings. But in western culture it is not only a flower. In Britain it is a symbol of spring and merriness. Many British writers and poets used to write daffodil to describe spring and their happiness.
Language， as one indispensable part of culture， must be influenced by culture， and in each language one can find many words that are bounded with strong cultural connotations， such as we have discussed in the above. Therefore in the study of two or more languages or cultures， one should not understand these words from his own culture background or understand them superficially. One must find out the cultural connotations of these words. Only by doing so can one have a complete and correct understanding of them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
参考文献
[1] Good New Bible， Today's English Version， Hong Kong， United Bible Societies， 1981
[2] Webster's new twentieth century Dictionary of the English Language （unabridged second edition），William Collins Publisher， Inc. 1980
[3] 王佐良，李赋宁，周珏良，刘承沛主编，英国文学名篇选注，北京，商务书馆，1983
[4] 邓炎昌，刘润清，语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比，北京，外语教学与研究出版社，1989
[5] 胡文仲，文化与交际，北京，外语教学与研究出版社，1994
[6] 胡文仲，英美文化辞典，北京，外语教学与研究出版社，1995
[7] 贾玉新，跨文化交际学，上海，上海外语教育出版社，1997
[8] 林玉卿，汉语与中国文化，北京，科学出版社，2000
[9] 汪容培，任秀桦译著，诗经（中英文版），沈阳，辽宁教育出版社，1995
[10] 王福祥，吴以樱编，文化与语言（论文集），北京，外语教学与研究出版社，1994
[11] 吴又富主编，外语与文化研究（论文集），上海，上海外语教育出版社，2001
收稿日期：2014-08-10
【关键词】culture； connotation； language；words
Language is a part of culture and plays a very important role in it. Some social scientists consider it the keystone of culture. Without language， they maintain， culture would not be possible. On the other hand， language is influenced and shaped by culture， and it reflects culture as well. In the broadest sense， language is the symbolic representation of a people， and it comprises their historical and cultural backgrounds as well as their approach to life and their ways of living and thinking. And as vocabulary is the basic element of a language， culture difference can be most readily shown on the vocabulary of different languages.
Generally speaking there are two mainstream cultures in the world， i.e. western culture and Chinese culture. People from different countries and China may have different understanding of many things due to different geographical background， custom， religion， means of value， etc. And this difference can be found in the language they speak， i.e. English and Chinese. In English and Chinese vocabulary one may find some names of animals plants that contain cultural connotations， such as the word dragon in western culture and the Chinese dragon， owl， willow， bamboo， phoenix， etc.
In English and Chinese there are some words that may superficially mean the same， but once put in the culture environment， they would contain absolutely different connotations. Some animals or plants may originally existed only in one particular place， while people of other places would find it hard to understand them， as there is no such image in their mind， such as “litchi” and “tea” in China. People may find that some animals or plants of one culture look very alike with those of another culture， but actually they are totally different， such as the animal “dragon” in western culture and the Chinese dragon. Still one may find the same animal or plant in different cultures， but as they belong to different cultures， their culture connotations are also different. Animals and plants like the owl， the willow and the bamboo are such a case.
First， let us look at what a dragon is. In western culture， a dragon is a huge lizard that has two wings， scales and shells and a snake's tail. It can produce fire from its mouth. During the Medieval Age， the dragon was the symbol of evil. It can eat human beings and animals and threaten people's life by bringing out fire and floods. Therefore in western culture and literature， the dragon has a very bad image. In the Bible， Santa， a devil fighting against God， was called as “the great dragon” Some very famous heroes and religious sages gained their reputation by killing wild and cruel dragons. In the first English epic The Song of Beowulf， the great national hero Beowulf saved his people and obtained a large amount of treasure by killing a dragon. So we can see that “dragon” in general a very cruel and evil animal that symbols the devil. In China ，“龙 ”or we call “the Chinese dragon” is a totally different animal. Actually it is not a real one. Being a totem originally， the Chinese dragon was invented by the Chinese people during the history. It is a sacred animal， having the features of many other animals such as snake， fish， deer， etc. As it is believed that the Chinese dragon can bring about wind and rainfall， go to the heaven and dive into deep water， the Chinese people regard it as their totem. People respect and owe it and play dragon-boat and make dragon-lantern on special days to show their happiness. And as the Chinese dragon is regarded as a sacred animal， it was always regarded as the symbol of the emperor in the feudal society. The emperor was called as a “real dragon”（真龙天子），his children and grand children as the offspring of the Chinese dragon（龙子龙孙），his clothes as the clothes of the Chinese dragon（龙袍），etc. Although one may find some evil and cruel dragons eating humans and bringing out disasters in Chinese classic， these dragons were of a small number and really counted nothing in the mainstream of Chinese culture.
Another animal that will be discussed is the owl. In western culture the owl can be used as a symbol of bad luck， danger， even death. In Shakespeare's Macbeth， there was a dialogue like this：
Macbeth： I have done the deed：——Didst thou not hear a noise？
Lady Macbeth： I hear the owl scream， and the cricket cry.——Did not you speak？
Here Lady Macbeth used the scream of the owl to tell her husband that she knew that Duncan had died. An owl in western culture can also be used as a symbol of wisdom. In English one may find the phrase “as wise as an owl”. And if one says someone is “owlish”， he means that that person is smart and serious. In west cartoon and books intended for children， the owl is usually a serious and wise bird to whom the judgment is asked to make on the quarrel between wild animals and to whom the help is asked for in time of emergency. Sometimes people may think that the owl is not so practical and clever， but generally speaking it is the symbol of wisdom.
The same animal word bears favorable meanings in English but derogatory meanings in Chinese
Take dog for example， in most cases， the word “dog” is favorable in its connotation in the English language. This is reflected in sayings like “Love me， love my dog”； “a lucky dog”. “To help a lame dog over the stile” means to help someone in difficulty. “Every dog has its day” means every person will some day succeed or become fortunate. But figures of speech like these are not proper in Chinese as the word 狗in most Chinese phrases are associated with some derogatory connotation， as is reflected in sayings like “狗急跳墙，狗头军师，狗仗人势，狐朋狗友，狗心狼肺，狗眼看人低，狗嘴里吐不出象牙，丧家之犬”，etc. In Greek and Roman mythology， owl always stays by the goddess of witness. It is invited to make a verdict on arguments between animals， especially on emergent occasions. Therefore， in English， owl is a bird standing for witness. Such as “as wise as an owl” Owlish refers to clever， shrewd. For example， Patrick peered owlishly at us through his glasses. However， in Chinese， owl is thought as a symbol of omen because it always flies around graveyard at night， sending out sad voice. In the old legend ，it is said that someone would die if the owl rest on his house . Owl is related to bad luck， death .There are many expressions showing people's view towards owl， such as “夜猫子进宅，无事不来”， “夜猫子抖翅，大小有点事”， “夜猫子进屋，全家都哭”，etc.
Whale is a huge animal， so in English it is a symbol of valuable things. The following examples proves it—— a whale of a chance（一个极好的机会）， whale on skating （滑冰高手）， a whale at tennis（善打网球的人）.However， in china， people pay little attention to its value but to its huge appetite. “蚕食鲸吞”means that a small country is embezzled like a silkworm eating little by little or like a whale swallowing.
The same animal word bears derogatory meanings in English but favorable meanings in Chinese
In Chinese， “猫” is a symbol of loveliness， shrewdness. Chinese people love cat because it is a lovely companion and it is a master in catching mice. Some ancient poets wrote poems to prize cats. But in English， cat is embodiment of devil. People detest cat， especially the black cat. In Chinese ， “喜鹊”is an auspicious bird .it is said that its voice brings good news as the following saying shows：
今朝闻鹊喜，家信必有归；
破颜看鹊喜，拭泪听猿啼；
鹊声喳喳宁有知，家人听鹊占归期.
What's more， its voice is the forest of fine weather， such as
鹊声宣日出
晴色喧从喜鹊知
It is proved that magpie can bring us good luck， whereas in English， it refers to wordy，garrulous people .for example：
She is a magpie of a woman.
She kept muttering like a magpie.
It is suggested that people in English speaking counties feel disgusted towards its voice. Besides， it stands for chaos， disorder. For example， “a magpie collection”， “to magpie together”. Apart from the above examples， there are many other animals， such as cricket， cuckoo， bat， petrel， and mouse， having favorable meanings in English but having derogatory meanings in Chinese.
Chinese people like to use the mandarin duck as the symbol for love because a mandarin couple always lives together in the water at ease. In a newly-married couple's room， there are many things with pictures about mandarin duck such as “鸳鸯帐”， “鸳鸯被”，“鸳鸯枕”.But the image of the mandarin duck in the phrase have to be translated into “love birds” as the mandarin duck is a kind of duck， which has no symbolic meaning at all in English. The English speaking people feel puzzled when they meet“你真熊”， “他太牛了”， “那个家伙简直象条泥鳅”.Because in English， bear has no symbolic meaning of stupidness or incompetence， neither cattle refers to stubbornness. There is no loach in most English speaking countries. So people do not think it as a kind of fish， let alone a cunning animal. Of course they can not understand the connotative meaning of “滑”as sly， tricky， diplomatic and so on.
Chinese people believe that tortoise can live for hundreds of years. So it is a symbol of a long life in Chinese culture. It is the reason that there are many carvings about tortoise on ancient palaces， temples and other buildings in china. On the other hand， tortoise has a very derogatory meaning. It is a terrible insult for somebody to be called “王八”， “乌龟王八蛋”.In English there are no such allusion whether with a favorable meaning or negative meaning.
Silkworm comes from china and the silk fabrics are very popular in foreign countries. Silk culture of china is known in the whole world as “丝绸之路”leads to western countries. Silkworm is spoken highly in the poem for its dedication .So cultural connotations of silkworm are endowed to Chinese whereas to most English speaking people， silkworm is， at most， a kind of small animal. Generally speaking， it is obvious to see the great influences of different cultures on animal words.
An animal word has English connotations but none in Chinese
It is difficult for Chinese people to understand some animal words because they have special meaning in English .For example， “as merry as a cricket”， “as cunning as a dead pig”， “as blind as a bat”， “as dumb as an oyster” and “as happy as a crow”， and so on.
“White elephant” refers to an animal with huge body， big ears long nose and sharp teeth in Chinese， however， in English it refers to huge but clumsy and useless things.
Buffalo has no connotative meanings in Chinese， whereas， in American English， an idiom “to buffalo” means. How it originated is released with “West Movement”. At that time， people in the west part of America hunted a great number of buffalo for the skin then they could get much money from leather trading. However， they found that it was not an easy job to hunt buffalo， so some people complained： “We are buffaloed.” Which means that they felt helpless. Then it evolves into threaten， menace.
In English， beaver is hard-working by nature and is known for building Den with branches of trees， stones and mud. “ ranger beaver” refers to a person who is diligent. “ goat” in English refers to a person who always does ***ual harassment towards women . “Duck” can to be used to a lovely person apart from the denotative meaning. “Cow” is a symbol of hardy and filthy. “A unicorn”， looking like horse but having only one horn， exists in the western legend. Which refers to something existing in name only. In Chinese， there is no animal word with such images， let alone corresponding cultural connotations. Besides， as far as chicken， goose， and ox are concerned， Chinese people consider them as common animals. Therefore， when they feel confused when thy come across the following sentences：
You are a chicken， that is why you will not climb the tree
You are a goose， how can you do that？
In the first sentence， we cannot get what the person said from the denotative meaning but from connotative meaning as “coward”. In the second sentence， goose suggest stupidness means fool.
Words vacancy is the evidence of national peculiarity of cultures in languages. Some animal words are endowed special cultural connotations in Chinese but none in English， or vice versa. This phenomenon will make people from two languages confused to some extent.
Different animal words have similar cultural connotations
In English and Chinese， some animal words have different referential meanings but they have similar or same cultural connotation， two different animal words from the two cultures respectively take on the same connotation. These words show that people in different cultures understand the objects by the same means and the phenomenon is related to their history to some extent. Some examples are presented as following：
In English， horse is also used often to refer to a person， such as a “willing horse”. Plain good sense is referred to as “horse sense”. In the Chinese language， there is no such allusions ，but “牛”is often used to refer to a person .A hardworking person is called a “老黄牛”. Lu Xun's saying of “俯首甘为孺子牛”is known to almost everybody in china. Because Chinese people have been using 牛in farming for thousands of years while horse has been used to do mostfarming work in Britain . Similarly， people of the two languages always use different animal words to express the same thought， especially in idioms as following：
落汤鸡 a drowned rat
鸡皮疙瘩 goose flesh
杀鸡取卵 kill the goose that lays the golden egg
瓮中之鳖 rat in a hole
胆小如鼠 chicken-hearted
蠢得象头猪 as stupid as a goose
象蜜蜂一样勤劳 as industrious as an ant
热锅上的蚂蚁 a cat on a hot tin roof
老虎的***摸不得 one should not twist the lion's tail
拦路虎 a lion in the way
深如虎穴 beard the lion in his den
狐假虎威 donkey in a lion's hide
非驴非马 neither fish nor fowl
吹牛 talk horse
牛饮 drink like a fish
公鸭嗓 as hoarse as a crow
过着牛马般的生活 lead a dog's life
But in Chinese culture the owl has the only symbol of bad luck and death. It is believed to have some relation with death and anyone who hears the scream of an owl would sooner or later find the death of one of his family members. As it more often that begins its activity at night and has a very unpleasant sound， the Chinese people usually call an welcoming visit as “an owl entering the house”. Apart from the animals， there are also some plants that embody with themselves culture connotations. First we will discuss the willow. In western culture the willow usually reminds people of weeping willow， which indicates death and mourning. This was the first shown in the Bible， Psalm137： A lament of Israelites in Exile/By the rivers of Babylon we sat down；/ there we wept when we remembered Anion， / On the willows nearby/ We hang up our harps （Good news Bible 1981：621）. Later in Shakespeare's Othello， Desdemona sang a “song of willow” to express her sorrowness， which also implied her death afterwards. In Dryden's Secret love， we can also find the graveness of willow “If you had not forsaken me， I had you. / so the willow may flourish for many branches I shall rob'em of ”（ 王左良 1983：737）.By contrast， in Chinese culture the willow is usually related with departing and the feeling of missing some one. In China's first collection of poems book of songs， one may find poems like when I set out so long ago/ Fresh and green was the willow/ When/ now homeward I go / There is a heavy snow （昔我往矣，杨柳依依。今我来斯，雨雪霏霏），which gives one a vivid impression of how soldiers defending the frontier missed their home and relatives. And history has seen many Chinese poets who wrote willow in their poems to express their emotion of missing. The reason why the willow has such a culture meaning is that willow （柳） in Chinese language sounds very much like another Chinese word “留”， which means staying. During the long history of using the two words “willow （柳） ” and “staying”（留）， the willow gradually bestows the meaning of hoping a friend to stay for a longer time and not to depart so hastily. And it is typical of Chinese tradition for people to give a branch of willow to departing friends and relatives as a wish for them， to stay for a longer time.
Another plant is the bamboo. In western countries the bamboo has scarcely any other cultural meanings， even in the English language the word “bamboo” is borrowed from Malay （bamboo）， as the bamboo is not an aboriginal plant in England. The British are not so familiar with this plant， therefore there is almost no cultural connotation in this word. But in Chinese， the word “bamboo” has very strong cultural connotations. The Chinese has long been planting and using bamboo in their daily life. The bamboo can be used to make food， house， boat， clothes， paper and shoes， etc. The Chinese people have found out some of the bamboo during the history of using it， for example， it is hollow inside but very hard when used， and it grows up upright. These peculiarities of the bamboo go hand in hand with traditional Chinese values， such as being moderate strong-hearted and fair-minded. Therefore bamboo can be found almost everywhere in China. In addition， in old times many people regarded themselves as bamboo-like people. They called themselves after the name of the bamboo， hoping that they would have a bamboo-like character， i.e. being moderate， strong-heated and fair-minded in their life. Apart from the dragon， the owl， the willow and the bamboo， one may also find other animals and plants that are bestowed with cultural connotations. For example， in Chinese culture， Phoenix is a sacred bird that has the snake's neck， fish's tail， the Chinese dragon's skin and tortoise's body. It is the king of all birds and has the connotation of prosperity and celebration. But in western culture the phoenix is a bird living in Arabian desert which will burn itself after 500 years of life. Then a new phoenix will come out from the ashes. So phoenix in western culture has the connotation of rebirth and a new life. Another example is the daffodil. The daffodil in Chinese culture is only a only a flower and has scarcely any cultural meanings. But in western culture it is not only a flower. In Britain it is a symbol of spring and merriness. Many British writers and poets used to write daffodil to describe spring and their happiness.
Language， as one indispensable part of culture， must be influenced by culture， and in each language one can find many words that are bounded with strong cultural connotations， such as we have discussed in the above. Therefore in the study of two or more languages or cultures， one should not understand these words from his own culture background or understand them superficially. One must find out the cultural connotations of these words. Only by doing so can one have a complete and correct understanding of them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
参考文献
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[2] Webster's new twentieth century Dictionary of the English Language （unabridged second edition），William Collins Publisher， Inc. 1980
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收稿日期：2014-08-10