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Abstract:In learning a second language, there are a number of variables that influence individual learners’ actual acquisition. This is what this paper serves: identifying a number of factors affecting individual’s second language acquisition.
Key words:variation individual factor SLA
1. Introduction
Linguists have seen that social factors to do with the context of learning have an effect on how successful individual L2 learners are, and possibly on how inter-language develops as well. We will now examine a number of psychological dimensions of difference.
2. Various motivations affecting SLA
2.1 Instrumental motivation
Much of the research has investigated the effects of an instrumental orientation on learning. The results have been variable, reflecting the situational/cultural context of learning. Thus, whereas instrumental motivation has been found to be only a weak predictor of foreign language achievement in several Canadian studies, it appears to be much more powerful in other contexts where learners have little or no interest in the target-language culture and few or no opportunities to interact with its members. For example, Gardner and Lambert (1972) found that a measure of instrumental orientation accounted for a significant proportion of the variance on Tagalog learners of L2 English in the Philippines. Similarly, Lukmani (1972) found that an instrumental orientation was more important than an integrative orientation in non-westernized female learners of L2 English in Bombay. The social situation helps to determine both what kind of orientation learners have and what kind is most important for language learning.
learners with an instrumental reason for learning an L2 can be successful. In some "second" as opposed to "foreign" settings an instrumental orientation may be the most important one. Providing learners with incentives may also aid learning by increasing the time learners spend studying, but the effects may cease as soon as the reward stops.
2.2 Resultative motivation
The resultative hypothesis may be particularly applicable in contexts where learners have very low initial motivation. Berwick and Ross (1989) investigated 90 first year Japanese university students majoring in international commerce and taking obligatory English classes. These students had a strong instrumental motivation to learn English they needed to pass the university entrance examinations, but typically became demotivated once they were at university. Bertwick and Ross found little evidence of any motivation on a pre-test administered at the beginning of the English course, but much more on a post-test given at the end. The students’ motivation appeared to broaden as a result of the course with two new motivational factors, labeled "support" and "interest", emerging. This study provides clear evidence of an experiential dimension to learner’s motivation.
It is likely that the relationship between motivation and achievement is an interactive one. A high level of motivation does stimulate learning, but perceived success in achieving L2 goals can help to maintain existing motivation and even create new types. Conversely, a vicious circle of low motivation=low achievement=lower motivation can develop.
2.3 Intrinsic motivation
The notion of intrinsic motivation is an old one in psychology. It was developed as an alternative to goal-directed theories of motivation that emphasize the role of extrinsic rewards and punishments. Keller (1984) identifies "interest" as one of the main elements of motivation, defining it as a positive response to stimuli based on existing cognitive structures in such a way that learners’ curiosity is aroused and sustained.
One way in which intrinsic interest in L2 learning might be achieved is by providing opportunities for communication. McNamara (1973) has argued that "the really important part of motivation lies in the act of communication". Rossier (1975) also emphasizes the importance of a desire to communicate, arguing that without this an integrative motivation may not be effective. It is the need to get meanings across and the pleasure experienced when this is achieved that provides the motivation to learn an L2. Crookes and Schmidt (1989) suggest a number of other ways in which teachers seek to foster intrinsic motivation. They try to make sure that the learning tasks pose a reasonable challenge to the students-neither too difficult nor too easy. They provide opportunities for group work. They base tasks on their perceptions of learners’ needs and wants and they try to provide for plenty of variety in classroom activities. Above all, perhaps, they try to ensure that motivation is engendered as a result of a good rapport with the learners.
3. Conclusion
From above, we can know several factors that influence individual learners’ second language acquisition. In order to make the language learning process a more effective, instructors need to put a great deal of thought into developing programs which maintain student interest and have obtainable short term goals. Teachers need to create interesting lessons in which the students’ attention is gained. Encouraging students to become more active participants in a lesson can sometimes assist them to see a purpose for improving their communication skills in the target language. Successful communication using the target language should result in feeling some sense of accomplishment on the part of students.
References:
[1]Graham Crookes and Richard Schmidt: “Motivation: Reopening the Research Agenda” in Language Learning, 1991.469-512.
[2]K. Dilier: Individual Differences and Universals in Language Aptitude. Newbury House,1981.
[3]R. Gardner: Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. Edward Arnold,1985.
[4]Rod Ellis. Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Language Press.
[5]Rod Ellis. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Language Press.
[6]Diane Larsen Freeman, Michael H. Long: An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Key words:variation individual factor SLA
1. Introduction
Linguists have seen that social factors to do with the context of learning have an effect on how successful individual L2 learners are, and possibly on how inter-language develops as well. We will now examine a number of psychological dimensions of difference.
2. Various motivations affecting SLA
2.1 Instrumental motivation
Much of the research has investigated the effects of an instrumental orientation on learning. The results have been variable, reflecting the situational/cultural context of learning. Thus, whereas instrumental motivation has been found to be only a weak predictor of foreign language achievement in several Canadian studies, it appears to be much more powerful in other contexts where learners have little or no interest in the target-language culture and few or no opportunities to interact with its members. For example, Gardner and Lambert (1972) found that a measure of instrumental orientation accounted for a significant proportion of the variance on Tagalog learners of L2 English in the Philippines. Similarly, Lukmani (1972) found that an instrumental orientation was more important than an integrative orientation in non-westernized female learners of L2 English in Bombay. The social situation helps to determine both what kind of orientation learners have and what kind is most important for language learning.
learners with an instrumental reason for learning an L2 can be successful. In some "second" as opposed to "foreign" settings an instrumental orientation may be the most important one. Providing learners with incentives may also aid learning by increasing the time learners spend studying, but the effects may cease as soon as the reward stops.
2.2 Resultative motivation
The resultative hypothesis may be particularly applicable in contexts where learners have very low initial motivation. Berwick and Ross (1989) investigated 90 first year Japanese university students majoring in international commerce and taking obligatory English classes. These students had a strong instrumental motivation to learn English they needed to pass the university entrance examinations, but typically became demotivated once they were at university. Bertwick and Ross found little evidence of any motivation on a pre-test administered at the beginning of the English course, but much more on a post-test given at the end. The students’ motivation appeared to broaden as a result of the course with two new motivational factors, labeled "support" and "interest", emerging. This study provides clear evidence of an experiential dimension to learner’s motivation.
It is likely that the relationship between motivation and achievement is an interactive one. A high level of motivation does stimulate learning, but perceived success in achieving L2 goals can help to maintain existing motivation and even create new types. Conversely, a vicious circle of low motivation=low achievement=lower motivation can develop.
2.3 Intrinsic motivation
The notion of intrinsic motivation is an old one in psychology. It was developed as an alternative to goal-directed theories of motivation that emphasize the role of extrinsic rewards and punishments. Keller (1984) identifies "interest" as one of the main elements of motivation, defining it as a positive response to stimuli based on existing cognitive structures in such a way that learners’ curiosity is aroused and sustained.
One way in which intrinsic interest in L2 learning might be achieved is by providing opportunities for communication. McNamara (1973) has argued that "the really important part of motivation lies in the act of communication". Rossier (1975) also emphasizes the importance of a desire to communicate, arguing that without this an integrative motivation may not be effective. It is the need to get meanings across and the pleasure experienced when this is achieved that provides the motivation to learn an L2. Crookes and Schmidt (1989) suggest a number of other ways in which teachers seek to foster intrinsic motivation. They try to make sure that the learning tasks pose a reasonable challenge to the students-neither too difficult nor too easy. They provide opportunities for group work. They base tasks on their perceptions of learners’ needs and wants and they try to provide for plenty of variety in classroom activities. Above all, perhaps, they try to ensure that motivation is engendered as a result of a good rapport with the learners.
3. Conclusion
From above, we can know several factors that influence individual learners’ second language acquisition. In order to make the language learning process a more effective, instructors need to put a great deal of thought into developing programs which maintain student interest and have obtainable short term goals. Teachers need to create interesting lessons in which the students’ attention is gained. Encouraging students to become more active participants in a lesson can sometimes assist them to see a purpose for improving their communication skills in the target language. Successful communication using the target language should result in feeling some sense of accomplishment on the part of students.
References:
[1]Graham Crookes and Richard Schmidt: “Motivation: Reopening the Research Agenda” in Language Learning, 1991.469-512.
[2]K. Dilier: Individual Differences and Universals in Language Aptitude. Newbury House,1981.
[3]R. Gardner: Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation. Edward Arnold,1985.
[4]Rod Ellis. Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Language Press.
[5]Rod Ellis. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Language Press.
[6]Diane Larsen Freeman, Michael H. Long: An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.