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The Peony Pavilion is a masterpiece by Tang Xianzu （1550-1616）， a representative play in the chuanqi tradition， and a canonical text in the late Ming intellectual movement of “the cult of qing”. Since the day of its creation， it has given rise to numerous debates and discussions. Modern scholars have conducted fruitful studies of the play with different approaches and methodologies. In this paper， I try to analyze the heroine Du Liniang’s psychic development from the perspective of psychoanalysis， especially in the light of Lacan’s theory on the mirror stage， and Freud’s theory on the “double” as well. Before I proceed on my analysis， it is necessary for me to justify my application of Lacan’s theory in the case of Du Liniang， since as Lacan points out， the visual identification in the mirror stage takes place “before it [I] is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other， and before language restores to it， in the universal， its function as subject. ” In other words， the formative function of the mirror image happens before the subject’s acquisition of his / her social and linguistic identification， and apparently， it doesn’t fit neatly in Liniang’s case. However， in a second thought， the plot of The Peony Pavilion centers on the death and rebirth of Liniang， and her crossing the realm from the dead and the alive either as a ghost or as a human. Tang Xianzu intends this play as an allegory of the transcending power of love， and Liniang’s awakening sense of the self plays a decisive role in her pursuit of love through death and life. Moreover， before Scene Ten “The Interrupted Dream，” Liniang appears to be no more than a passive receiver of her parents’ restriction and her tutor’s instruction. Forced to confine herself in the deep boudoir， she is denied freedom of movement and can only pass her time with sewing and broidering. Nor is mental freedom allowed to her： she can only read the Confucian classics， and a tutor is hired to make sure that she understands them according to the orthodox interpretation. Worst of all， since the moment of her birth， Liniang has been a disappointment to her parents， because what they expect is a son， and she is reduced to an instrument through whose agency they hope to get a son-in-law in the future： We can see Liniang is denied of social recognition as a significant social being even in the view of her parents. Therefore， based on the above two considerations， it is not farfetched to say that before the pivotal Scene Ten “The Interrupted Dream，” Liniang’s social and linguistic identification are questionable， since the role assigned to her is mute， passive and isolated. In a metaphorical sense， Liniang doesn’t get her mental birth until Scene Ten and an attempt on a psychoanalytical reading of The Peony Pavilion may yield valuable discoveries.
Scene Ten “The Interrupted Dream” is one of the most pregnant scenes in the play， and Liniang’s visit in the garden and her romantic dream in the Peony Pavilion are always the focus of critical attention. However， in my opinion， Liniang’s looking at her image in the mirror is as important as， if not more than， her visit and dream in the garden， because it marks an important stage in her psychical development， which determines what will happen to her later in the play： her dream of the sexual encounter with the Student Liu， her death and transformation into a ghost， and finally her resurrection and marriage with the Student. Interpreted in the light of Lacan’s theory on the mirror stage， the formation of Liniang’s Ideal-I， her primary narcissism and sexual desire， and her anxiety and escape through dreams and death—can all be attributed to her act of looking into the mirror.
This act takes place after Tutor Chen’s class on the first poem in the Book of Songs “Guan ju” and before her visit to the garden. “Guan ju” is originally a poem about the love between young men and young women at the time of spring. In spite of Tutor Chen’s pedantic interpretation of the poem as praising the virtues of the Emperor’s consort， it nonetheless successfully foreshadows Liniang’s awakening sense of the self. The maid Chunxiang’s jokes on Chen’s pedantry make the spiritless neo-Confucian interpretation ridiculous and subvert it’s authority in a humorous way. Considered in the context of Liniang’s psychical development from a state of repressed latency into an irrepressible aspiration for sexual fulfillment， her act of looking into the mirror marks a turning point in Liniang’s characterization. A girl from a good family， Liniang is brought up in the deep boudoir and never to be seen by males out of her family. Her parents and her maid Chunxiang are her only companion， plus the bookish old Confucian tutor Chen Zuiliang， none of whom are able to establish an effective reciprocal responsive connection with Liniang. Her semi-reclusive life in the boudoir separated from the outside reality deprives her of the normal means of self formation and threatens her with the depersonalizing effect of the devouring space. Therefore， when she looks at her image in the mirror before her visit in the garden， the effect of her mirror image on Liniang resembles that of a baby in an amazingly similar way.
As if looking into the mirror for the first time like a baby， Liniang is at first alarmed to see her image in the mirror， to the extant that she almost loses her demeanor and disarrays her hair style， and mistakes it for some stranger who intrudes into her privacy. Her initial struggle to identify with her mirror image proves again her infantile stage of psychical development in spite of her physical age. After that， a visual identification is established between her and the mirror image， and a transformation takes place in her， as explained by Lacan： “We have only to understand the mirror stage as an identification， in the full sense that analysis gives to the term： namely， the transformation that takes place in the subject when he assumes an image—whose predestination to this phase effect is sufficiently indicated by the use， in analytic theory， of the ancient term imago. ”
Liniang’s recognition of her specular image creates a condition that precipitates the I into its primordial form， which is called the Ideal-I in Lacan’s terms. For Liniang， her Ideal-I is what she sees in the mirror： a charming young lady radiating physical beauty and youthful vigor， who has always cherished a love for fine things. The Ideal-I will be the source for her secondary identifications in the future. Most importantly， it “situates the agency of the ego， before its social determination， in a fictional direction， which will always remain irreducible for the individual alone. ” It lays the foundation for her later mental and behavioral developments， and will never be rid of in her subject， no matter how she would reconcile her ego with the reality. With the Ideal-I， Liniang rejoices with the libidinal dynamics which is termed “primary narcissism，” a normal and healthy libidinal investment characteristic at the mirror stage. Deeply attracted by her own image， she can’t help but declare her nature to “love fine things” and celebrate on her beauty that “cause the fish to sink， wild geese to fall to earth， petals to close and the moon to hide her face.”
Scene Fourteen “The Portrait” is an interesting scene that， if read from the light of Freud’s theory on the “double”， can reinforce the validity of my psychoanalytical interpretation of the play， and some issues raised by the some critics and be easily solved in such a reading. For example， Tina Lu has insightfully pointed out the fragmentation of the girl’s identity in this scene split among the girl， her reflection in the mirror and her self-portrait， and by drawing our attention to the discrepancy between the three versions of Liniang， raises the issue of the authenticity of her identity . However， if we trace Liniang’s the psychical development from the mirror stage to the ego stage， and understand the portrait as her “double” that evolves from the “insurance against the destruction of the ego” to “the uncanny harbinger of death， ” the apparent discrepancy and fragmentation of her identity can be explained as the result of the drama in her psyche. Saddened and emaciated， Liniang paints her self-portrait for the purpose of people’s remembrance of her beauty after her death. As I have discussed in the previous part， Liniang’s death is the strategy of the counter-active force to break out of the gripping power of ego and to give free release to the repressed libidinal dynamics. Yet to avoid an actual extinction of the ego， a doubling has to be invented as a preservation of it. According to Freud’s theory， such ideas on the double “have sprung from the soil of unbounded self-love， from the primary narcissism. ” Therefore， Liniang’s portrait is based not on her actual look， nor her reflection in the mirror at the moment of painting， but her imago that she identifies with in her Ideal-I， whose residual presence from the mirror stage is forever irreducible in the girl’s self. However， in the later stages of the ego’s development， “a special agency is slowly formed there [in the double]， which is able to stand over against the rest of the ego， which has the function of observing and criticizing the self and of exercising a censorship with in the mind， and which we become aware of as our ‘conscience’. ” Liniang’s joy at her portrait’s beauty soon turns into deep grief on her wasted youth and loneliness， and it hastens the approaching of her death. Moreover， in the idea of the double， “there are also all the unfulfilled but possible futures to which we still like to cling in fantasy， all the striving of the ego which adverse external circumstances have crushed， and all our suppressed acts of volition which nourish in us the illusions of Free Will. ” The fact that Liniang’s ghost lodges in her portrait implies that both carries her repressed desire and unfulfilled wish. In conclusion， a psychoanalytical interpretation based on Lacan’s theory on the mirror stage and Freud’s theory on the “double” of The Peony Pavilion sheds new lights on our understanding on the character of Du Liniang and her pursuit of love through the realms of the dead and the alive. Liniang’s act of looking into the mirror ushers her into the mirror stage and arouses her libidinal dynamics latent in her psyche. The romantic love affair between Du Liniang and Liu Mengmei is in some sense her primary narcissistic and sexual libido in distortion and displacement in the language of dreams. The significance of the portrait lies that it serves as Liniang’s double， whose double-sided function can be best explained in terms of the primordial form of I and I in its later stage of ego development.
References：
[1]See Xu Fuming ed.，Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao kaoshi （Shanghai：Shanghai guji chubanshe，1987）.
[2]See Hua Wei ed.，Tang Xianzu yu Mudan ting，vol.1
This act takes place after Tutor Chen’s class on the first poem in the Book of Songs “Guan ju” and before her visit to the garden. “Guan ju” is originally a poem about the love between young men and young women at the time of spring. In spite of Tutor Chen’s pedantic interpretation of the poem as praising the virtues of the Emperor’s consort， it nonetheless successfully foreshadows Liniang’s awakening sense of the self. The maid Chunxiang’s jokes on Chen’s pedantry make the spiritless neo-Confucian interpretation ridiculous and subvert it’s authority in a humorous way. Considered in the context of Liniang’s psychical development from a state of repressed latency into an irrepressible aspiration for sexual fulfillment， her act of looking into the mirror marks a turning point in Liniang’s characterization. A girl from a good family， Liniang is brought up in the deep boudoir and never to be seen by males out of her family. Her parents and her maid Chunxiang are her only companion， plus the bookish old Confucian tutor Chen Zuiliang， none of whom are able to establish an effective reciprocal responsive connection with Liniang. Her semi-reclusive life in the boudoir separated from the outside reality deprives her of the normal means of self formation and threatens her with the depersonalizing effect of the devouring space. Therefore， when she looks at her image in the mirror before her visit in the garden， the effect of her mirror image on Liniang resembles that of a baby in an amazingly similar way.
As if looking into the mirror for the first time like a baby， Liniang is at first alarmed to see her image in the mirror， to the extant that she almost loses her demeanor and disarrays her hair style， and mistakes it for some stranger who intrudes into her privacy. Her initial struggle to identify with her mirror image proves again her infantile stage of psychical development in spite of her physical age. After that， a visual identification is established between her and the mirror image， and a transformation takes place in her， as explained by Lacan： “We have only to understand the mirror stage as an identification， in the full sense that analysis gives to the term： namely， the transformation that takes place in the subject when he assumes an image—whose predestination to this phase effect is sufficiently indicated by the use， in analytic theory， of the ancient term imago. ”
Liniang’s recognition of her specular image creates a condition that precipitates the I into its primordial form， which is called the Ideal-I in Lacan’s terms. For Liniang， her Ideal-I is what she sees in the mirror： a charming young lady radiating physical beauty and youthful vigor， who has always cherished a love for fine things. The Ideal-I will be the source for her secondary identifications in the future. Most importantly， it “situates the agency of the ego， before its social determination， in a fictional direction， which will always remain irreducible for the individual alone. ” It lays the foundation for her later mental and behavioral developments， and will never be rid of in her subject， no matter how she would reconcile her ego with the reality. With the Ideal-I， Liniang rejoices with the libidinal dynamics which is termed “primary narcissism，” a normal and healthy libidinal investment characteristic at the mirror stage. Deeply attracted by her own image， she can’t help but declare her nature to “love fine things” and celebrate on her beauty that “cause the fish to sink， wild geese to fall to earth， petals to close and the moon to hide her face.”
Scene Fourteen “The Portrait” is an interesting scene that， if read from the light of Freud’s theory on the “double”， can reinforce the validity of my psychoanalytical interpretation of the play， and some issues raised by the some critics and be easily solved in such a reading. For example， Tina Lu has insightfully pointed out the fragmentation of the girl’s identity in this scene split among the girl， her reflection in the mirror and her self-portrait， and by drawing our attention to the discrepancy between the three versions of Liniang， raises the issue of the authenticity of her identity . However， if we trace Liniang’s the psychical development from the mirror stage to the ego stage， and understand the portrait as her “double” that evolves from the “insurance against the destruction of the ego” to “the uncanny harbinger of death， ” the apparent discrepancy and fragmentation of her identity can be explained as the result of the drama in her psyche. Saddened and emaciated， Liniang paints her self-portrait for the purpose of people’s remembrance of her beauty after her death. As I have discussed in the previous part， Liniang’s death is the strategy of the counter-active force to break out of the gripping power of ego and to give free release to the repressed libidinal dynamics. Yet to avoid an actual extinction of the ego， a doubling has to be invented as a preservation of it. According to Freud’s theory， such ideas on the double “have sprung from the soil of unbounded self-love， from the primary narcissism. ” Therefore， Liniang’s portrait is based not on her actual look， nor her reflection in the mirror at the moment of painting， but her imago that she identifies with in her Ideal-I， whose residual presence from the mirror stage is forever irreducible in the girl’s self. However， in the later stages of the ego’s development， “a special agency is slowly formed there [in the double]， which is able to stand over against the rest of the ego， which has the function of observing and criticizing the self and of exercising a censorship with in the mind， and which we become aware of as our ‘conscience’. ” Liniang’s joy at her portrait’s beauty soon turns into deep grief on her wasted youth and loneliness， and it hastens the approaching of her death. Moreover， in the idea of the double， “there are also all the unfulfilled but possible futures to which we still like to cling in fantasy， all the striving of the ego which adverse external circumstances have crushed， and all our suppressed acts of volition which nourish in us the illusions of Free Will. ” The fact that Liniang’s ghost lodges in her portrait implies that both carries her repressed desire and unfulfilled wish. In conclusion， a psychoanalytical interpretation based on Lacan’s theory on the mirror stage and Freud’s theory on the “double” of The Peony Pavilion sheds new lights on our understanding on the character of Du Liniang and her pursuit of love through the realms of the dead and the alive. Liniang’s act of looking into the mirror ushers her into the mirror stage and arouses her libidinal dynamics latent in her psyche. The romantic love affair between Du Liniang and Liu Mengmei is in some sense her primary narcissistic and sexual libido in distortion and displacement in the language of dreams. The significance of the portrait lies that it serves as Liniang’s double， whose double-sided function can be best explained in terms of the primordial form of I and I in its later stage of ego development.
References：
[1]See Xu Fuming ed.，Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao kaoshi （Shanghai：Shanghai guji chubanshe，1987）.
[2]See Hua Wei ed.，Tang Xianzu yu Mudan ting，vol.1