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Abstract: Drama is an art with a long history. This paper reviews the origin and classification of drama. By analyzing the structure, language and theme of drama, the author summarizes that from the stylistic perspective, drama adopts poetic and rhetoric devices in its language, and its language is character-specific and action-like. Besides, returning to truth and deviation are also typical of drama.
Key Words: dramadrama languagestylistic features
中图分类号:G642 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1673-1875(2010)08-069-03
I. The Origin of Drama
Drama is an art with a long history. It is in the primitive society that man created drama which was very simple and rich as well. The primitive drama is closely related to dance. In fact, the dance that we see in the primitive tribes is the earliest form of drama. The performance of drama is closely connected with religious festivals, such as the victory of war, the harvest of crops, the success of hunting.
Drama in ancient Greece and Rome is the real beginning of European drama, and has a profound influence on the creation and theory of European drama.
Greek drama reached its peak in 5th century BC. Though large amount of highly artistic drama was created, few existed now. The boom of ancient Greek drama was due to the democratic politics of the time. The oldest ideology of the Greek is mythology, which is also the source of the creation of Greek art. Greek drama originated from the offering of sacrifice to the God of wine. The God of wine Dionysus is in charge of the living things. The Greeks offer sacrifice to him inspring and autumn in order to pray and celebrate harvest. When the sacrifice is going on, people walk in parades and form choral group to sing the praises of the God of wine. It is said that Dionysus has traveled around the world and has been accompanied by the Gods who are half –goat and half human. People dress themselves that way, too. The chorus has a chief who tells story about the God of wine when the group stop before the altar. Then the chorus respond with songs. Later on, an actor joins the chorus. The stories he tells include those beyond the deeds of Dionysus. The chorus respond to him with songs too. Thus tragedy came into being. Comedy formed and developed in much the same way.
II.The Classification of Drama:
1. Classification and definition:
Drama can be classified into two categories: tragedy and comedy. In Greek, tragedy means “the song of goats”, while comedy means “the song of revel and parade”. In his Poetics, Aristotle defined tragedy thus:
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kind being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.
The subject matter of Greek tragedy comes from mythology. However, the dramatists provide new interpretations of it so as to reflect the real life and present their attitudes towards things. As time goes on, the plot of tragedy is more complex; more characters appear. The dramatic elements and lyrical elements of the chorus are essential to Greek tragedy.
The three most outstanding writes of tragedy in Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The common feature of them is that they establish rich themes including politics, religion, moral and psychology. They attribute the conflicts they can not understand and the difficulties they can not solve to destiny. They believe that destiny is predetermined and can not be changed, but they respect people’s free will . They put their theme in the conflicts between people’sfree will and destiny and teach people how to live and struggle actively.
The structure of Greek tragedy is complete and well—knit. Tragedy usually begins with a prologue, followed by the entering of the chorus, three to five scenes and songs which are interwoven, and finally the quitting.
2.Differences between tragedy and comedy:
The subject matter of tragedy comes from mythology while that of comedy comes from real life. The heroes of tragedy are Gods, kings and brave generals, but comedy takes common people as its heroes. The language of tragedy is poetic while that of comedy is daily language. Tragedy has a close structure whereas comedy has a loose one. Characters are relatively few in tragedy but are many in comedy. In a word, comedy has freer contents and means of creation.
III.Stylistic Features of Drama:
1. The Structure of Drama:
The structure of drama has particular demands. It can not make its plot as long as novel or TV Serials, nor can it change scenes or time or space as freely as films do. Drama can only unfold its plot in limited time (about two to three hours) and on a half-closed stage. This results is that it depicts event that is going on at a certain time in a certain place.
The arrangement of plot is also limited. Since the performance of drama is influenced by time and place, it is all the more important to arrange the double plot and minor plot. This means that while narrating the main plot, the writer must arrange some minor plot through dialogue and aside in the actor’s lines. This suggestively describes the relevant experience of the characters and the complex relationships between them. Therefore, drama is more concise than novel. Its plot can be divided into several acts and put on stage separately. The division of acts can obey the following rules: time sequence, different events, the shift of focus, etc. However, modern dramatists can decide their form and style more freely.
An important factor that has influenced the structure of drama is the “three consistency “principles in Greek drama, that is, the consistency of time, place and plot. The initial concept is that the plot of the drama should be identical to real life as much as possible. All the events are presented in a single scene; time limit is set to the plot in order to make the performance possible and convenient. In other words, “the three consistency” principle refers to the consistency of action (the script presents a single story), consistency of time (the story happens within a single day), consistency of place (the story happens at a certain place). In fact, modern drama and contemporary drama have shaken off such restriction gradually. Every act can take place at a different place, and can last a longer time. Several plots can be woven together to serve a common theme.
2. The Language of Drama
Dialogue plays a vital role in drama. It contributes to the development of plot, the portrayal of characters, and the revealing of thoughts. In a broad sense dialogues in drama can be called drama language. Since drama is the aesthetic part of life, its language has two characteristics: one is that the language is colloquial, with the freedom and vitality of daily language, the other is that it is the refined daily language, which has got some aesthetic value. Actor’s words have three forms: dialogue, monologue and aside, each with its function. Dialogue is the conversation between characters and is used to narrate the story, unfold the plot and portray characters. Monologue is employed to reveal the deepest feelings and emotions of the characters, and aside is used to explain the development of the plot and the theme of the script. We can sum up the general features of drama language as follows:
I)using poetic language:
The success of a drama depends on its language. Playwrights before the end of the 19th century created their plays in poetry form.. They paid much attention to the brevity and beauty and meter and rhythm of the language. The poetic lines often leave a deep impression and aftertaste on people. For example:
To be, or not to be—that is the question:
Whether ’ tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings or arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing, end them. To die, to sleep—
No more.—and by a sleep to say we end
The heartache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to. ’Tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep—
To sleep—perchance to dream; ay, there is the rub,
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil
Must give us pause.
---------Hamlet
2)using rhetorical devices:
Though drama language originates from life, it is not the simple repetition of daily language. In fact many rhetorical devices are employed to render the language fresh, lively , beautiful and at the same time expressive and appealing. Rhetorical devices are indispensable to drama language. Such devices include hyperbole, parallel, metaphor, sarcasm, etc.
a) hyperbole:
O, what a noble mind is here o’erthrown!
The courtier’s, scholar’s , soldier’s , eye, tongue, sword;
The expectancy and rose of the fair state,
The glass of fashion and the mold of form,
The observed of all observers, quite, quite down!
In this scene, Hamlet pretends to be mad. His lover Ophelia feels very sad and describes the image of Hamlet in her heart. Here, hyperbole is employed to praise Hamlet. Such high-sounding words as the courtiers’ eye, the scholar’s tongue, the soldier’s sword form a striking contrast with Hamlet’s sadness at that time.
b) reiterative
In rhetoric, mechanical repetition should be avoided. However, in certain circumstance, purposeful repetition, that is, reiterative, can strengthen the artistic effects. For example:
Lear: And my poor fool is hanged. No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life, and thou no breath at all ? Thou’It come no more. Never, never, never,never, never!
The guilt and regret of King Lear in losing his dear daughter appear vividly here.
c )sarcasm
This device can strengthen the rhetorical effects. For example:
Antony:Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones.
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus
Hath told you Caesar was ambitious,
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievously hath Caesar answered it.
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest--------
(The mob murmurs angrily )
For Brutus is an honorable man------
So are they all, all honorable men----
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is an honorable man.
----------Shakespeare Julius Caesar
Here, the repetition of “ Brutus says he was ambitious. And Brutus is an honorable man“shows that actually Brutus is shameless in killing Caesar. Antony’s oratory skill is also shown.
d) contrast
For example
Oh,wicked women bother one.Good women bore one.
-----Oscar WildeLady Windermere’s Fan
e) parallel
For example.
You’ve lost your figure and you’ve lost your character. Don’t lose your temper; you have only got one.
3). returning to truth
Daily conversation enters drama language since the time of the Norwegian playwright Ibsen. Many writers cherish the principle of being true and natural. They represent the conversation that people make in daily life on the stage. Let’s look at an example:
Meg: Here’s your cornflakes, are they nice?
Peter: Very nice.
Meg: I thought they’d be nice. ( She sits at the table.) You got your paper?
Peter: Yes.
Meg: Is it good?
Peter: Not bad.
Meg: What does it say?
Peter: Not much.
Meg: You read me out some nice bits yesterday.
Peter: Yes, well, I haven’t finished this one yet.
Meg: Will you tell me when you come to something good?
Peter: Yes.
------ Harold PinterThe Birthday Party
This part is natural and direct. It is a typical scene of a family breakfast. However, the different personality of the wife and the husband is successfully portrayed. The wife asks eagerly but is answered coldly by her husband. This helps to create a dull atmosphere for the whole play. Though simple and plain, the dialogue is deep in meaning and rich in value.
4). character—specific language
In a drama, characters come from all walks of life. Playwrights present the social status and personality of each character by the language he speaks. Similarly, the innermost feelings of the character is revealed. Different characters speak differently. Readers can judge a character simply by his words. For example:
Liza: The shallow depression in the west of these islands is likely to move slowly in an easterly direction. There is no indications of any great change in the barometrical situation.
Liza: Y—e-e-e-es, Lord love you! Why should she die of influenza? She come through diphtheria right enough the year before. I saw her with my own eyes. Fairly blue with it, she was. They all thought she was dead; but my father he kept ladling gin down her throat till she came to so sudden that she bit the bowl off the spoon.
------- George Bernard ShawPygmalion
5). action—like language
Drama has to be performed on the stage; therefore, its language must be action—like. Actors can perform some action when speaking the lines. This can not only fully express their meanings and intensions, but also present some contradictions and conflicts. The dramatic element of a play is achieved by the development of conflicts and contradictions. For example:
秦仲义: 把本钱拢在一块儿, 开工厂1 顶大顶大的工厂! 那才救得了穷人, 那才能抵制外货, 那才能救国!
庞太监: 那还用说吗?天下太平了, 圣旨下来, 谭兹同问斩! 告诉您, 谁敢改祖宗的章程,谁就掉脑袋!
--------老舍 茶馆
6). deviation
Deviation in drama includes social dialects, regional dialects and personal dialects. This can best show the personality of a character. For example:
Good Gentleman goe your gate, and let poore volke passé: and’chud ha’bin zwaggerd out of my life,’twould not ha’bin zo long as ‘tis, by a vottnight. Nay, come not neere th’old man: keepe out che vor’ye, or ice try whither your Costard, or my Ballow be the harder;chill be plaine with you.
-------ShakespeareKing Lear
References:
[1] 秦秀白.文体学概论[M].湖南教育出版社,2003.
[2] 吴伟仁.英国文学史及选读[M].外语教育与研究出版社,1990.
[3] 周慧华.西方戏剧史通论[M].浙江大学出版社,2008.
[4] 侯淘.语言顺应与戏剧文体[D].上海外国语大学博士论文,2009.
Key Words: dramadrama languagestylistic features
中图分类号:G642 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1673-1875(2010)08-069-03
I. The Origin of Drama
Drama is an art with a long history. It is in the primitive society that man created drama which was very simple and rich as well. The primitive drama is closely related to dance. In fact, the dance that we see in the primitive tribes is the earliest form of drama. The performance of drama is closely connected with religious festivals, such as the victory of war, the harvest of crops, the success of hunting.
Drama in ancient Greece and Rome is the real beginning of European drama, and has a profound influence on the creation and theory of European drama.
Greek drama reached its peak in 5th century BC. Though large amount of highly artistic drama was created, few existed now. The boom of ancient Greek drama was due to the democratic politics of the time. The oldest ideology of the Greek is mythology, which is also the source of the creation of Greek art. Greek drama originated from the offering of sacrifice to the God of wine. The God of wine Dionysus is in charge of the living things. The Greeks offer sacrifice to him inspring and autumn in order to pray and celebrate harvest. When the sacrifice is going on, people walk in parades and form choral group to sing the praises of the God of wine. It is said that Dionysus has traveled around the world and has been accompanied by the Gods who are half –goat and half human. People dress themselves that way, too. The chorus has a chief who tells story about the God of wine when the group stop before the altar. Then the chorus respond with songs. Later on, an actor joins the chorus. The stories he tells include those beyond the deeds of Dionysus. The chorus respond to him with songs too. Thus tragedy came into being. Comedy formed and developed in much the same way.
II.The Classification of Drama:
1. Classification and definition:
Drama can be classified into two categories: tragedy and comedy. In Greek, tragedy means “the song of goats”, while comedy means “the song of revel and parade”. In his Poetics, Aristotle defined tragedy thus:
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kind being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.
The subject matter of Greek tragedy comes from mythology. However, the dramatists provide new interpretations of it so as to reflect the real life and present their attitudes towards things. As time goes on, the plot of tragedy is more complex; more characters appear. The dramatic elements and lyrical elements of the chorus are essential to Greek tragedy.
The three most outstanding writes of tragedy in Greece are Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The common feature of them is that they establish rich themes including politics, religion, moral and psychology. They attribute the conflicts they can not understand and the difficulties they can not solve to destiny. They believe that destiny is predetermined and can not be changed, but they respect people’s free will . They put their theme in the conflicts between people’sfree will and destiny and teach people how to live and struggle actively.
The structure of Greek tragedy is complete and well—knit. Tragedy usually begins with a prologue, followed by the entering of the chorus, three to five scenes and songs which are interwoven, and finally the quitting.
2.Differences between tragedy and comedy:
The subject matter of tragedy comes from mythology while that of comedy comes from real life. The heroes of tragedy are Gods, kings and brave generals, but comedy takes common people as its heroes. The language of tragedy is poetic while that of comedy is daily language. Tragedy has a close structure whereas comedy has a loose one. Characters are relatively few in tragedy but are many in comedy. In a word, comedy has freer contents and means of creation.
III.Stylistic Features of Drama:
1. The Structure of Drama:
The structure of drama has particular demands. It can not make its plot as long as novel or TV Serials, nor can it change scenes or time or space as freely as films do. Drama can only unfold its plot in limited time (about two to three hours) and on a half-closed stage. This results is that it depicts event that is going on at a certain time in a certain place.
The arrangement of plot is also limited. Since the performance of drama is influenced by time and place, it is all the more important to arrange the double plot and minor plot. This means that while narrating the main plot, the writer must arrange some minor plot through dialogue and aside in the actor’s lines. This suggestively describes the relevant experience of the characters and the complex relationships between them. Therefore, drama is more concise than novel. Its plot can be divided into several acts and put on stage separately. The division of acts can obey the following rules: time sequence, different events, the shift of focus, etc. However, modern dramatists can decide their form and style more freely.
An important factor that has influenced the structure of drama is the “three consistency “principles in Greek drama, that is, the consistency of time, place and plot. The initial concept is that the plot of the drama should be identical to real life as much as possible. All the events are presented in a single scene; time limit is set to the plot in order to make the performance possible and convenient. In other words, “the three consistency” principle refers to the consistency of action (the script presents a single story), consistency of time (the story happens within a single day), consistency of place (the story happens at a certain place). In fact, modern drama and contemporary drama have shaken off such restriction gradually. Every act can take place at a different place, and can last a longer time. Several plots can be woven together to serve a common theme.
2. The Language of Drama
Dialogue plays a vital role in drama. It contributes to the development of plot, the portrayal of characters, and the revealing of thoughts. In a broad sense dialogues in drama can be called drama language. Since drama is the aesthetic part of life, its language has two characteristics: one is that the language is colloquial, with the freedom and vitality of daily language, the other is that it is the refined daily language, which has got some aesthetic value. Actor’s words have three forms: dialogue, monologue and aside, each with its function. Dialogue is the conversation between characters and is used to narrate the story, unfold the plot and portray characters. Monologue is employed to reveal the deepest feelings and emotions of the characters, and aside is used to explain the development of the plot and the theme of the script. We can sum up the general features of drama language as follows:
I)using poetic language:
The success of a drama depends on its language. Playwrights before the end of the 19th century created their plays in poetry form.. They paid much attention to the brevity and beauty and meter and rhythm of the language. The poetic lines often leave a deep impression and aftertaste on people. For example:
To be, or not to be—that is the question:
Whether ’ tis nobler in the mind to suffer
The slings or arrows of outrageous fortune,
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,
And by opposing, end them. To die, to sleep—
No more.—and by a sleep to say we end
The heartache and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to. ’Tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep—
To sleep—perchance to dream; ay, there is the rub,
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil
Must give us pause.
---------Hamlet
2)using rhetorical devices:
Though drama language originates from life, it is not the simple repetition of daily language. In fact many rhetorical devices are employed to render the language fresh, lively , beautiful and at the same time expressive and appealing. Rhetorical devices are indispensable to drama language. Such devices include hyperbole, parallel, metaphor, sarcasm, etc.
a) hyperbole:
O, what a noble mind is here o’erthrown!
The courtier’s, scholar’s , soldier’s , eye, tongue, sword;
The expectancy and rose of the fair state,
The glass of fashion and the mold of form,
The observed of all observers, quite, quite down!
In this scene, Hamlet pretends to be mad. His lover Ophelia feels very sad and describes the image of Hamlet in her heart. Here, hyperbole is employed to praise Hamlet. Such high-sounding words as the courtiers’ eye, the scholar’s tongue, the soldier’s sword form a striking contrast with Hamlet’s sadness at that time.
b) reiterative
In rhetoric, mechanical repetition should be avoided. However, in certain circumstance, purposeful repetition, that is, reiterative, can strengthen the artistic effects. For example:
Lear: And my poor fool is hanged. No, no, no life! Why should a dog, a horse, a rat have life, and thou no breath at all ? Thou’It come no more. Never, never, never,never, never!
The guilt and regret of King Lear in losing his dear daughter appear vividly here.
c )sarcasm
This device can strengthen the rhetorical effects. For example:
Antony:Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones.
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus
Hath told you Caesar was ambitious,
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievously hath Caesar answered it.
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest--------
(The mob murmurs angrily )
For Brutus is an honorable man------
So are they all, all honorable men----
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me;
But Brutus says he was ambitious,
And Brutus is an honorable man.
----------Shakespeare Julius Caesar
Here, the repetition of “ Brutus says he was ambitious. And Brutus is an honorable man“shows that actually Brutus is shameless in killing Caesar. Antony’s oratory skill is also shown.
d) contrast
For example
Oh,wicked women bother one.Good women bore one.
-----Oscar WildeLady Windermere’s Fan
e) parallel
For example.
You’ve lost your figure and you’ve lost your character. Don’t lose your temper; you have only got one.
3). returning to truth
Daily conversation enters drama language since the time of the Norwegian playwright Ibsen. Many writers cherish the principle of being true and natural. They represent the conversation that people make in daily life on the stage. Let’s look at an example:
Meg: Here’s your cornflakes, are they nice?
Peter: Very nice.
Meg: I thought they’d be nice. ( She sits at the table.) You got your paper?
Peter: Yes.
Meg: Is it good?
Peter: Not bad.
Meg: What does it say?
Peter: Not much.
Meg: You read me out some nice bits yesterday.
Peter: Yes, well, I haven’t finished this one yet.
Meg: Will you tell me when you come to something good?
Peter: Yes.
------ Harold PinterThe Birthday Party
This part is natural and direct. It is a typical scene of a family breakfast. However, the different personality of the wife and the husband is successfully portrayed. The wife asks eagerly but is answered coldly by her husband. This helps to create a dull atmosphere for the whole play. Though simple and plain, the dialogue is deep in meaning and rich in value.
4). character—specific language
In a drama, characters come from all walks of life. Playwrights present the social status and personality of each character by the language he speaks. Similarly, the innermost feelings of the character is revealed. Different characters speak differently. Readers can judge a character simply by his words. For example:
Liza: The shallow depression in the west of these islands is likely to move slowly in an easterly direction. There is no indications of any great change in the barometrical situation.
Liza: Y—e-e-e-es, Lord love you! Why should she die of influenza? She come through diphtheria right enough the year before. I saw her with my own eyes. Fairly blue with it, she was. They all thought she was dead; but my father he kept ladling gin down her throat till she came to so sudden that she bit the bowl off the spoon.
------- George Bernard ShawPygmalion
5). action—like language
Drama has to be performed on the stage; therefore, its language must be action—like. Actors can perform some action when speaking the lines. This can not only fully express their meanings and intensions, but also present some contradictions and conflicts. The dramatic element of a play is achieved by the development of conflicts and contradictions. For example:
秦仲义: 把本钱拢在一块儿, 开工厂1 顶大顶大的工厂! 那才救得了穷人, 那才能抵制外货, 那才能救国!
庞太监: 那还用说吗?天下太平了, 圣旨下来, 谭兹同问斩! 告诉您, 谁敢改祖宗的章程,谁就掉脑袋!
--------老舍 茶馆
6). deviation
Deviation in drama includes social dialects, regional dialects and personal dialects. This can best show the personality of a character. For example:
Good Gentleman goe your gate, and let poore volke passé: and’chud ha’bin zwaggerd out of my life,’twould not ha’bin zo long as ‘tis, by a vottnight. Nay, come not neere th’old man: keepe out che vor’ye, or ice try whither your Costard, or my Ballow be the harder;chill be plaine with you.
-------ShakespeareKing Lear
References:
[1] 秦秀白.文体学概论[M].湖南教育出版社,2003.
[2] 吴伟仁.英国文学史及选读[M].外语教育与研究出版社,1990.
[3] 周慧华.西方戏剧史通论[M].浙江大学出版社,2008.
[4] 侯淘.语言顺应与戏剧文体[D].上海外国语大学博士论文,2009.