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A number of technologies are available for minimally-invasive cardiac output measurement in patients during surgery but remain little used.A novel system has been developed based on CO2 elimination (VCO2) by the lungs for use in ventilated patients, which can be fully integrated into a modem anesthesia/monitoring platform, and provides automated, handsfree continuous breath-by-breath cardiac output monitoring.A prototype measurement system was constructed to measure VCO2 and end-tidal CO2 partial pressure with each breath.