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摘 要:通过对水手拉斐尔.希斯拉德的叙述,托马斯•莫尔详细描述了一个叫做乌托邦的理想社会,以揭露十六世纪的英国社会弊病并对之进行批判。此举对后来的社会主义空想家及乌托邦小说产生了深远的影响。《格列佛游记》以其在当代政治上含蓄而深刻的讽刺,在很多问题上与乌托邦有类似之处。莫尔代表英国商人的利益,洞察当时的社会弊病,并表明自己对不幸人们的高度同情。本文首先关注社会弊病的来源,然后通过多种途径探讨如何摆脱这种罪恶。诚然,由于莫尔所处的时代和所属阶级,他的思想有一定的局限性,特别是允许奴隶的存在及殖民的合法化。
关键词:社会弊病;私有财产;乌托邦;平等
Utopia is written in the dialogue form between More and a returned sailor called Raphael Hythloday. It contains two books:In the first book,social evils of the early 16thcentury England was made known and attacked. In the second book,More described in detail an ideal society called Utopia. Funny and ridiculous as they might sound,some of Utopian customs proved to be reasonable after given second thoughts,such as their custom of inspecting each other stark naked before plunging into marriage,their devaluing gold and silver to contemptible things and so on. The more times I read Utopia,the deeper I felt Thomas More's unsatisfaction with the contemporary society and his strong compassion for the common people. As a well-off member of the upper society and an official whom the King doted on,it is extremely commendable for him to have such insight and affection. It occurres to me that Utopia bears some similarities with another book I had read,Gulliver's Travels,which not only is a piercing yet veiled satire at contemporary political issues,but is otherwise his voice of what an ideal society should be. Gulliver,the hero,gave a detailed description of what he saw and heard in fantastic countries(Lilliput,Brobdingnag,Laputa,Houyhnhnms,etc.) wherein his Utopian thoughts were embodied. In this thesis,I will focus on the source of the social evils according to Thomas More and some of his humanist ideas. Moreover,I will make comparison with Gulliver's Travels when illustrating my points if necessary.
ⅠSource of the Social Evils
England witnessed great changes in the 16th century. Owing to the development of capitalism,the price of wool kept rising. Since raising sheep didn’t require as many hands as husbandry,as More pointed out “one shepherd or herdman is enough to eat up that ground with cattle",sheep-raising proved to be more profitable. Not contenting themselves with the profits they got from husbandry and tillage,those people in power,including noblemen,gentlemen and holy men,threw down houses,plucked down towns,enclosed all into pastures and left nothing standing but only the church to be made a sheephouse. Deprived of what they had,the poor husbandmen trudged away,finding no place to rest in. Not a few people were forced to sell their household stuff for a thing of naught. When they wandered about till that little money was spent,they were reduced to beggars or thieves. At that time,the punishment for thieves was death. In Utopia,More gave a vivid description of that phenomenon:
Your sheep that were wont to be so meek and tame,and so small eaters,now,as I hear say,be become so great devourers and so wild that they eat up and swallow down the very men themselves. They consume,destroy,and devour whole fields,houses,and cities. (More,33)
This is the notorious enclosure movement in British history. It did help to accumulate capital at the beginning of capitalism but at the cost of many common people's property and lives. Thanks to enclosure movement,wealth flew into a few rich men's hands,while the poor became even poorer,which was not favourable for the society's stability and justice.
Besides the enclosure movement,the corruption of the ruling class should be responsible for the social evils. At that time,there were many idle people in the society,including the rich men and their serving-men,who,like drones,lived off the fruits of others. The poor working people could hardly make ends meet though they worked round the clock while those idle people led a luxurious life. Things in the Court were no better. More maintained that the King ought to take more care for the wealth of his people than for his own. But what's the reality? When King Henry Ⅶ was in reign,he once demanded the Parliament to appropriate a large sum of money for his daughter’s wedding and his son’s promotion ceremony,however,it received opposition from Thomas More. In revenge,the King had More’s father imprisoned in the Tower of London and did not release him until a fine was paid. Worse still,the King's council were none other than a group of flatterers,who,in order to please the King,whetted their wits and devised what subtle craft they might invent to enrich the King and find decent excuses to uphold their actions. They defended that "all that all men have,also the men themselves,be all his. And that every man hath so much of his own as the King's gentleness hath not taken from him. And that it shall be most for the King's advantage that his subjects have very little or nothing in their possession " (More,48)
Gulliver's Travels,using funny and exaggerating plots,exposes the corruption and absurdity of the court and the ruling class. In Lilliput,there were two groups in the government,one with high heels shoes,the other with low heels,who disagreed and conspired against each other. High positions in the government were given to those who could jump the highest and dance the best on a rope that was tied high in the air. People risked their lives to do so,because the King believed that he who made it would be a good leader. Disagreeing with each other on which end to open first when breaking eggs,Lilliput and Blefuscu were at war,involving many people's lives. The King of Lilliput wanted to conquer Blefuscu completely and killed all that broke eggs at the large end with the assistance of Gulliver. However,when this demand was declined by Gulliver,the King decided to accuse him of treason and sentence him to death. Interesting and ridiculous as the plots were,what the author,Jonathan Swift,really aimed at was to satirize and expose the corruption of the ruling class of England in the 18th century.
Ⅱ Ways to Get Rid of Such Evils
1. On Property
As a humanist,More had intense concern for the problems of his day and showed great compassion for the miserable people. He pointed out that all social evils in England were rooted in the private property and the way out lied in getting rid of such ownership. Concerning private property,More proposed that it put obstacles in the way of bringing "equality of all things",for the few owned most riches while the rest,who were thought to deserve enjoying them,were left in poverty. More described an ideal society based on genuine property-sharing and an unprecedented power-sharing. In Utopia,there was no currency. Commodities were distributed to the citizens according to their needs,for there was an abundance of commodities in the society. Contray to the practice of other countries,More in Utopia took the radical means to devalue the universal currency of gold and silver. This system of value often made foreigners the laughing stock,for gold and silver were despised and worn by slaves in Utopia. Hythloday told the story of a group of diplomats from the country of Anemolius. These Anemolian visitors attempted to dazzle the eyes of the poor Utopians by wearing splendid clothes and jewellery. The humorous description was given of the children laughing at those dignitaries for their wearing degrading adornments.
You should have seen children also,that had cast away their pearls and precious stones,when they saw the like sticking upon the ambassadors' caps,dig and push their mothers under sides,saying thus to them:'Look,mother,how great a lubber doth yet wear pearls and precious stones,as though he were a little child still'(More,83)
In Guelliver's Travels,Swift also showed his contempt for yahoo's avarice for "shining stones" in the country of Houyhnhnms. He pointed out in a satirical way that property was a cause of discontent and conflict.
That in some fields of his country there are certain shining stones of several colours,whereof the YAHOOS are violently fond:and when part of these stones is fixed in the earth,as it sometimes happens,they will dig with their claws for whole days to get them out;then carry them away,and hide them by heaps in their kennels;but still looking round with great caution,for fear their comrades should find out their treasure.(Swift,172)
2. On the King
More pointed out that the King ought to take more care for the wealth of his people than for his own wealth. He agreed with Plato in that those who held political power should take as their sole responsibility the public good rather than their own wealth. No personal wealth,Plato believed,could make Guardians immune to the fear of "internal enemies".
But should they ever acquire homes or lands or money of their own,they will become housekeepers and husbandmen instead of guardians,enemies and tyrants instead of allies of the other citizens;hating and being hated,plotting and being plotted against,they will pass their whole life in much greater terror of internal than of external enemies,and the hour of ruin,both to themselves and to the rest of the state,will be at hand. (Plato,BookⅢ)
I should declare that the commonalty chooseth their king for their own sake,and not for his sake,to the intent,that through his labour and study they might all live wealthily safe from wrongs and injuries(More,49)
3. On the Death Penalty
At More's time,there were many soldiers returning from the many foreign wars who were either wounded or dismissed. By reason of weakness and lameness,they were not able to occupy their old crafts and were too aged to learn new,so life was especially hard for them. What's more,owing to the enclosure movement,many husbandmen who were deprived of land and property bacame vagrants. In order to stay alive,they had no choice but to steal. However,at that time,the punishment for theft was death. More argued that it was too extreme and cruel a punishment for theft and yet not sufficient to refrain and withhold men from theft. It passed the limits of justice,and was also very hurtful to the public. "I think it not right nor justice,that the loss of money should cause the loss of man's life. For mine opinion is,that all the goods in the world are not able to countervail man's life. (More,37) To those desperate people who had no other craft to live off,there was no punishment that could prevent them from stealing. More proposed that the government should provide them with means whereby they might get their living.
As for the enclosure movement,More suggested that a law should be made that he who plucked down farms and towns of husbandry should remedy them;the rich men were not allowed to engross and use their monopoly to keep the market alone;let not so many be brought up in idleness;let husbandry and tillage be restored;let cloth-working be renewed so that many idle people could spend their time profitably etc..
Ⅲ Some Limits in More’s Ideas
1. The Existence of Slaves. In Utopia,slaves mainly came from two categories of people:those,due to violent offences,were punished with bondage;and poor labourers in other country who were willing to be slaves in Utopia. These slaves,rather than the citizens,took the job of killing and washing beasts and fowls. "For they permit not their free citizens to accustom themselves to the killing of beasts,through the use whereof they think clemency,the gentlest affection of our nature,by little and little to decay and perish." (More,75) What's more,all vile service,all drudgery with all laboursome toil and base business were done by bondmen. It is true that Utopians didn't treat their slaves as violently as other countries did,however,the existence of slaves was incompatible with the equality and justice of Utopia.
2. His Colonization Policy. When the people on Utopian island became overcrowded,some would be chosen to immigrate to a neighbouring country,where the local had much unoccupied land. If the locals would like to cooperate,Utopians would live in harmony with them to make the land sufficient and fruitful enough for them both. However,if the locals resisted and rebelled,Utopians would make war against them,for they considered it a just cause of war that any people held land void and vacant to no good and profitable use,keeping others from the use and possession of it. More,a representative of the interests of British merchants,regarded colonization fully justified. For all the shortcomings,Thomas More will,forever,be remembered by following people as a humanist and a forerunner of dreamer-socialist. The paradise on earth depicted by More will enlighten and inspire generations and generations of socialists to turn that beautiful picture into reality.
This semester we have learned such great men as Socrates,Plato,Erasmus,More etc. and their ideas and philosophy on life,truth,faith,how to govern the state and so on,from which I have greatly benefited. Just as Descartes put it "The reading of all good books is indeed like a conversation with the noblest men of past centuries." Besides western culture,I have great interest in British and American literature. To learn literature well,the knowledge of western culture is a must. I believe a deepened understanding of western culture would,for sure,help me to gain a better knowledge of the novel I read. A good understanding of western culture is to literature what bricks are to buildings,without which the whole project cannot be carried out.
Bibliography:
[1]More,Thomas. Utopia. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching & Research Press,1997.
[2]Plato. Republic. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching& Research Press,1988.
[3]Swift,Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels. China Foreign Trade and Business Press,2000.
[4]施茂铭,林正秋,莫尔和他的《乌托邦》,北京:商务印书馆,1978.
关键词:社会弊病;私有财产;乌托邦;平等
Utopia is written in the dialogue form between More and a returned sailor called Raphael Hythloday. It contains two books:In the first book,social evils of the early 16thcentury England was made known and attacked. In the second book,More described in detail an ideal society called Utopia. Funny and ridiculous as they might sound,some of Utopian customs proved to be reasonable after given second thoughts,such as their custom of inspecting each other stark naked before plunging into marriage,their devaluing gold and silver to contemptible things and so on. The more times I read Utopia,the deeper I felt Thomas More's unsatisfaction with the contemporary society and his strong compassion for the common people. As a well-off member of the upper society and an official whom the King doted on,it is extremely commendable for him to have such insight and affection. It occurres to me that Utopia bears some similarities with another book I had read,Gulliver's Travels,which not only is a piercing yet veiled satire at contemporary political issues,but is otherwise his voice of what an ideal society should be. Gulliver,the hero,gave a detailed description of what he saw and heard in fantastic countries(Lilliput,Brobdingnag,Laputa,Houyhnhnms,etc.) wherein his Utopian thoughts were embodied. In this thesis,I will focus on the source of the social evils according to Thomas More and some of his humanist ideas. Moreover,I will make comparison with Gulliver's Travels when illustrating my points if necessary.
ⅠSource of the Social Evils
England witnessed great changes in the 16th century. Owing to the development of capitalism,the price of wool kept rising. Since raising sheep didn’t require as many hands as husbandry,as More pointed out “one shepherd or herdman is enough to eat up that ground with cattle",sheep-raising proved to be more profitable. Not contenting themselves with the profits they got from husbandry and tillage,those people in power,including noblemen,gentlemen and holy men,threw down houses,plucked down towns,enclosed all into pastures and left nothing standing but only the church to be made a sheephouse. Deprived of what they had,the poor husbandmen trudged away,finding no place to rest in. Not a few people were forced to sell their household stuff for a thing of naught. When they wandered about till that little money was spent,they were reduced to beggars or thieves. At that time,the punishment for thieves was death. In Utopia,More gave a vivid description of that phenomenon:
Your sheep that were wont to be so meek and tame,and so small eaters,now,as I hear say,be become so great devourers and so wild that they eat up and swallow down the very men themselves. They consume,destroy,and devour whole fields,houses,and cities. (More,33)
This is the notorious enclosure movement in British history. It did help to accumulate capital at the beginning of capitalism but at the cost of many common people's property and lives. Thanks to enclosure movement,wealth flew into a few rich men's hands,while the poor became even poorer,which was not favourable for the society's stability and justice.
Besides the enclosure movement,the corruption of the ruling class should be responsible for the social evils. At that time,there were many idle people in the society,including the rich men and their serving-men,who,like drones,lived off the fruits of others. The poor working people could hardly make ends meet though they worked round the clock while those idle people led a luxurious life. Things in the Court were no better. More maintained that the King ought to take more care for the wealth of his people than for his own. But what's the reality? When King Henry Ⅶ was in reign,he once demanded the Parliament to appropriate a large sum of money for his daughter’s wedding and his son’s promotion ceremony,however,it received opposition from Thomas More. In revenge,the King had More’s father imprisoned in the Tower of London and did not release him until a fine was paid. Worse still,the King's council were none other than a group of flatterers,who,in order to please the King,whetted their wits and devised what subtle craft they might invent to enrich the King and find decent excuses to uphold their actions. They defended that "all that all men have,also the men themselves,be all his. And that every man hath so much of his own as the King's gentleness hath not taken from him. And that it shall be most for the King's advantage that his subjects have very little or nothing in their possession " (More,48)
Gulliver's Travels,using funny and exaggerating plots,exposes the corruption and absurdity of the court and the ruling class. In Lilliput,there were two groups in the government,one with high heels shoes,the other with low heels,who disagreed and conspired against each other. High positions in the government were given to those who could jump the highest and dance the best on a rope that was tied high in the air. People risked their lives to do so,because the King believed that he who made it would be a good leader. Disagreeing with each other on which end to open first when breaking eggs,Lilliput and Blefuscu were at war,involving many people's lives. The King of Lilliput wanted to conquer Blefuscu completely and killed all that broke eggs at the large end with the assistance of Gulliver. However,when this demand was declined by Gulliver,the King decided to accuse him of treason and sentence him to death. Interesting and ridiculous as the plots were,what the author,Jonathan Swift,really aimed at was to satirize and expose the corruption of the ruling class of England in the 18th century.
Ⅱ Ways to Get Rid of Such Evils
1. On Property
As a humanist,More had intense concern for the problems of his day and showed great compassion for the miserable people. He pointed out that all social evils in England were rooted in the private property and the way out lied in getting rid of such ownership. Concerning private property,More proposed that it put obstacles in the way of bringing "equality of all things",for the few owned most riches while the rest,who were thought to deserve enjoying them,were left in poverty. More described an ideal society based on genuine property-sharing and an unprecedented power-sharing. In Utopia,there was no currency. Commodities were distributed to the citizens according to their needs,for there was an abundance of commodities in the society. Contray to the practice of other countries,More in Utopia took the radical means to devalue the universal currency of gold and silver. This system of value often made foreigners the laughing stock,for gold and silver were despised and worn by slaves in Utopia. Hythloday told the story of a group of diplomats from the country of Anemolius. These Anemolian visitors attempted to dazzle the eyes of the poor Utopians by wearing splendid clothes and jewellery. The humorous description was given of the children laughing at those dignitaries for their wearing degrading adornments.
You should have seen children also,that had cast away their pearls and precious stones,when they saw the like sticking upon the ambassadors' caps,dig and push their mothers under sides,saying thus to them:'Look,mother,how great a lubber doth yet wear pearls and precious stones,as though he were a little child still'(More,83)
In Guelliver's Travels,Swift also showed his contempt for yahoo's avarice for "shining stones" in the country of Houyhnhnms. He pointed out in a satirical way that property was a cause of discontent and conflict.
That in some fields of his country there are certain shining stones of several colours,whereof the YAHOOS are violently fond:and when part of these stones is fixed in the earth,as it sometimes happens,they will dig with their claws for whole days to get them out;then carry them away,and hide them by heaps in their kennels;but still looking round with great caution,for fear their comrades should find out their treasure.(Swift,172)
2. On the King
More pointed out that the King ought to take more care for the wealth of his people than for his own wealth. He agreed with Plato in that those who held political power should take as their sole responsibility the public good rather than their own wealth. No personal wealth,Plato believed,could make Guardians immune to the fear of "internal enemies".
But should they ever acquire homes or lands or money of their own,they will become housekeepers and husbandmen instead of guardians,enemies and tyrants instead of allies of the other citizens;hating and being hated,plotting and being plotted against,they will pass their whole life in much greater terror of internal than of external enemies,and the hour of ruin,both to themselves and to the rest of the state,will be at hand. (Plato,BookⅢ)
I should declare that the commonalty chooseth their king for their own sake,and not for his sake,to the intent,that through his labour and study they might all live wealthily safe from wrongs and injuries(More,49)
3. On the Death Penalty
At More's time,there were many soldiers returning from the many foreign wars who were either wounded or dismissed. By reason of weakness and lameness,they were not able to occupy their old crafts and were too aged to learn new,so life was especially hard for them. What's more,owing to the enclosure movement,many husbandmen who were deprived of land and property bacame vagrants. In order to stay alive,they had no choice but to steal. However,at that time,the punishment for theft was death. More argued that it was too extreme and cruel a punishment for theft and yet not sufficient to refrain and withhold men from theft. It passed the limits of justice,and was also very hurtful to the public. "I think it not right nor justice,that the loss of money should cause the loss of man's life. For mine opinion is,that all the goods in the world are not able to countervail man's life. (More,37) To those desperate people who had no other craft to live off,there was no punishment that could prevent them from stealing. More proposed that the government should provide them with means whereby they might get their living.
As for the enclosure movement,More suggested that a law should be made that he who plucked down farms and towns of husbandry should remedy them;the rich men were not allowed to engross and use their monopoly to keep the market alone;let not so many be brought up in idleness;let husbandry and tillage be restored;let cloth-working be renewed so that many idle people could spend their time profitably etc..
Ⅲ Some Limits in More’s Ideas
1. The Existence of Slaves. In Utopia,slaves mainly came from two categories of people:those,due to violent offences,were punished with bondage;and poor labourers in other country who were willing to be slaves in Utopia. These slaves,rather than the citizens,took the job of killing and washing beasts and fowls. "For they permit not their free citizens to accustom themselves to the killing of beasts,through the use whereof they think clemency,the gentlest affection of our nature,by little and little to decay and perish." (More,75) What's more,all vile service,all drudgery with all laboursome toil and base business were done by bondmen. It is true that Utopians didn't treat their slaves as violently as other countries did,however,the existence of slaves was incompatible with the equality and justice of Utopia.
2. His Colonization Policy. When the people on Utopian island became overcrowded,some would be chosen to immigrate to a neighbouring country,where the local had much unoccupied land. If the locals would like to cooperate,Utopians would live in harmony with them to make the land sufficient and fruitful enough for them both. However,if the locals resisted and rebelled,Utopians would make war against them,for they considered it a just cause of war that any people held land void and vacant to no good and profitable use,keeping others from the use and possession of it. More,a representative of the interests of British merchants,regarded colonization fully justified. For all the shortcomings,Thomas More will,forever,be remembered by following people as a humanist and a forerunner of dreamer-socialist. The paradise on earth depicted by More will enlighten and inspire generations and generations of socialists to turn that beautiful picture into reality.
This semester we have learned such great men as Socrates,Plato,Erasmus,More etc. and their ideas and philosophy on life,truth,faith,how to govern the state and so on,from which I have greatly benefited. Just as Descartes put it "The reading of all good books is indeed like a conversation with the noblest men of past centuries." Besides western culture,I have great interest in British and American literature. To learn literature well,the knowledge of western culture is a must. I believe a deepened understanding of western culture would,for sure,help me to gain a better knowledge of the novel I read. A good understanding of western culture is to literature what bricks are to buildings,without which the whole project cannot be carried out.
Bibliography:
[1]More,Thomas. Utopia. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching & Research Press,1997.
[2]Plato. Republic. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching& Research Press,1988.
[3]Swift,Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels. China Foreign Trade and Business Press,2000.
[4]施茂铭,林正秋,莫尔和他的《乌托邦》,北京:商务印书馆,1978.