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Abstract：In recent years， with globalization， the promotion of urbanization， and achievements in modern science and technology， food culture has undergone changes in the structure of diet， utensils， food preparation and processing， as well as food rituals and taboos. On the one hand， the introduction of foreign foods， new ideas and concepts， and new technologies has diversified food choices for people. On the other hand， food has been emphasized or “consumed” as a “symbolic marker” for peoples identity， social position or taste， and its position within the market or its commercial “quality” has become more prominent. The boundaries between different kinds of food culture have become vague， and heterogeneity is being replaced by homogeneity.
This paper takes the Miao people of Wenshan in Yunnan， China as a case study to explore both visible and underlying factors that lead to changes in food culture. It uses anthropological method and theory to analyze these changes. The ethnographic data for this paper was collected by participant observation and in-depth interviews conducted in March and August， 2015. Moreover， this paper will， on the one hand， analyze the cultural communications， conflict and fusion in the daily interaction and social communication between the Miao and Han； on the other hand， it will analyze differences within the same “food cultural zone”， i.e. the “southwest cultural food zone”， by using the cross-cultural comparative methodology.
The Wenshan Miao and Zhuang Autonomous Prefecture is located in the southeastern part of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. It consists of eight counties and has a subtropical monsoon climate with clearly divided dry and wet seasons. There is a large difference in seasonal rainfall. It is rich in minerals， and has a karst landform with a wide expanse of limestone. This results in the fact that Wenshan has limited arable land and poor soil. Affected by its ecological and geographic environment， the Miao people of Wenshan have developed a unique Miao culture which differs from the cultures of other Miao ethnic groups living in Eastern Hunan and Central Guizhou. The food culture of Wenshan Miao is a typical aspect of their culture illustrating this difference.
I. Changes in the contemporary food culture of the Miao people in Wenshan
1. Changes in the composition of food. Due to the lack of surface water， Wenshan does not have many wet rice fields. Consequently， traditionally， the staple food of the Miao people in Wenshan was corn， which was used to make mianmianfan （steamed ground corn）. However， today， mianmianfan is made with corn and rice. Most people now eat steamed rice， and corn is used to feed livestock and fowl. For their meat and vegetables， the Miao people in Wenshan used to get them from nature， by hunting wild animals and collecting wild vegetables. Today they purchase these items from markets with cash. Some traditional dishes， such as duojishen （chicken with bones chopped to tiny pieces and stir-fried with ginger and chili pepper）， lianzhalao （vegetable tofu made from white corn）， are hardly seen today， either because they are regarded as too cheap to eat or too complicated to make. For beverage， the Miao people in Wenshan like to drink home-made alcohol from corn. Today corn alcohol is still popular in Wenshan， but new modern beverages， such as coke， ice tea and fruit juices， can be seen at tables. 2. Changes in food preparation.Traditionally the Miao people in Wenshan used wood as fuel， and made wood stoves and wooden rice steamers. Today， although some Miao people still use them， many others use electrical rice steamers， stoves and woks. However， their cooking methods have not changed much. Boiling， stir-frying and stewing are the most commonly-used techniques.
II. Causes of the changes in food culture
1. Natural and ecological factors. Living in mountains and hills with karst landforms， the Miao people in Wenshan have limited arable land. They practice extensive dry-land cultivation. Their major food crops are corn and sweet potato. Sanqi （Panax notoginseng） and yellow ginger， used as a food spice and medicine， are their major cash crops. In August and September， when there is abundant rainfall， a variety of mushrooms can also be found in the mountains.
2. Social and economic factors. As urbanization developed rapidly in Wenshan， as it has in other parts of China， many young people have left their villages to work in cities. In addition， many Miao villagers have built houses and rent them to migrant workers. Thus， family income has increased， which makes it possible for the Miao people to buy different kinds of home appliances， such as refrigerators， rice cookers ， washing machines， etc.， all of which changed the local peoples traditional way of life. Supermarkets and farmers markets are now connected with Miao villages via newly-built roads. Fresh fruits， vegetables， meat， sea food， and many other sorts of food or foodstuffs are available at those markets today.
3. Multi-Cultural interaction. As the result of globalization and modernization in China， the in-migration of people has increased in Wenshan. Many Miao villages now have migrants with Han， Zhuang and Yi ethnic backgrounds. Different cultures are now interacting with each other. Dishes from Sichuan or Yi cuisines can be seen at the tables of Miao families.
III. Discussion and conclusion
The food culture of the Miao people at Wenshan in Yunnan has undergone changes in food staples， non-staple foods， beverage， food utensils and food processing methods. These changes are caused by factors in the natural and ecological environment， improvement of economic and social life， and multi-cultural interaction with different ethnic groups. Food culture is an important part of human cultures. Changes in food culture can reflect cultural change. From the changes in the food culture of the Miao people in Wenshan， we can also see changes in the Miao peoples concepts of gender role， ethnic memory and boundary， as well as food safety and health. Key Words：Wenshan Miao； change in food culture； anthropology of food； ethnic memory
References：
B. K. Malinowski. The Dynamics of Culture Change. Forge Village， Mass.： The Murray Printing Co.1965.
F. Boas. Race. Language and Culture. New York，Macmillan.1982.
Huang Shuping， Gong Peihua.wenhua renleixue lilun fangfa yanjiu （Study on Theories and Methods of Cultural Anthropology）. Guangzhou： Guangdong Higher Education Press. 2013.
Liao Guoyi， Xu Jingbin.huan beibuwan diqu yaozu yinshi wenhua de bianqian （ On the Changes of the Catering Culture of Yao Ethnic Minority in Round-Beipu-Gulf Area： A Case Study of Nanping Township of Yao Ethnic Minority in Shangsi County）. In Journal of Nanning Polytechnic， 2007，12（4）.
Marvin Harris. Good to Eat： Riddles of Food and Culture. Long Grove， Illinois： Waveland Press， Inc.1985.
Peng Linxu. tujiazu juzhu ji yinshi wenhua bianqian （ The Changes of Tujia Nationality in Living and Food Culture）. In Journal of Hubei Institute for Nationalities（Philosophy and Social Sciences， 2000，18（1）.
Xu Xinjian， Wang Mingk， Xu Jieshun. yinshi wenhua yu zuqun bianjie—guanyu yinshi renleixue de duihua （Catering Culture and Ethnic Boundary： A Conversation about Catering Anthropology）. In Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities， 2005. 27（6）.
Zhao Rongguang， Xie Dingyuan. yinshi wenhua gailun （Introduction to Food Culture）. Beijing： zhongguo qinggongye chubanshe，2000.
This paper takes the Miao people of Wenshan in Yunnan， China as a case study to explore both visible and underlying factors that lead to changes in food culture. It uses anthropological method and theory to analyze these changes. The ethnographic data for this paper was collected by participant observation and in-depth interviews conducted in March and August， 2015. Moreover， this paper will， on the one hand， analyze the cultural communications， conflict and fusion in the daily interaction and social communication between the Miao and Han； on the other hand， it will analyze differences within the same “food cultural zone”， i.e. the “southwest cultural food zone”， by using the cross-cultural comparative methodology.
The Wenshan Miao and Zhuang Autonomous Prefecture is located in the southeastern part of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. It consists of eight counties and has a subtropical monsoon climate with clearly divided dry and wet seasons. There is a large difference in seasonal rainfall. It is rich in minerals， and has a karst landform with a wide expanse of limestone. This results in the fact that Wenshan has limited arable land and poor soil. Affected by its ecological and geographic environment， the Miao people of Wenshan have developed a unique Miao culture which differs from the cultures of other Miao ethnic groups living in Eastern Hunan and Central Guizhou. The food culture of Wenshan Miao is a typical aspect of their culture illustrating this difference.
I. Changes in the contemporary food culture of the Miao people in Wenshan
1. Changes in the composition of food. Due to the lack of surface water， Wenshan does not have many wet rice fields. Consequently， traditionally， the staple food of the Miao people in Wenshan was corn， which was used to make mianmianfan （steamed ground corn）. However， today， mianmianfan is made with corn and rice. Most people now eat steamed rice， and corn is used to feed livestock and fowl. For their meat and vegetables， the Miao people in Wenshan used to get them from nature， by hunting wild animals and collecting wild vegetables. Today they purchase these items from markets with cash. Some traditional dishes， such as duojishen （chicken with bones chopped to tiny pieces and stir-fried with ginger and chili pepper）， lianzhalao （vegetable tofu made from white corn）， are hardly seen today， either because they are regarded as too cheap to eat or too complicated to make. For beverage， the Miao people in Wenshan like to drink home-made alcohol from corn. Today corn alcohol is still popular in Wenshan， but new modern beverages， such as coke， ice tea and fruit juices， can be seen at tables. 2. Changes in food preparation.Traditionally the Miao people in Wenshan used wood as fuel， and made wood stoves and wooden rice steamers. Today， although some Miao people still use them， many others use electrical rice steamers， stoves and woks. However， their cooking methods have not changed much. Boiling， stir-frying and stewing are the most commonly-used techniques.
II. Causes of the changes in food culture
1. Natural and ecological factors. Living in mountains and hills with karst landforms， the Miao people in Wenshan have limited arable land. They practice extensive dry-land cultivation. Their major food crops are corn and sweet potato. Sanqi （Panax notoginseng） and yellow ginger， used as a food spice and medicine， are their major cash crops. In August and September， when there is abundant rainfall， a variety of mushrooms can also be found in the mountains.
2. Social and economic factors. As urbanization developed rapidly in Wenshan， as it has in other parts of China， many young people have left their villages to work in cities. In addition， many Miao villagers have built houses and rent them to migrant workers. Thus， family income has increased， which makes it possible for the Miao people to buy different kinds of home appliances， such as refrigerators， rice cookers ， washing machines， etc.， all of which changed the local peoples traditional way of life. Supermarkets and farmers markets are now connected with Miao villages via newly-built roads. Fresh fruits， vegetables， meat， sea food， and many other sorts of food or foodstuffs are available at those markets today.
3. Multi-Cultural interaction. As the result of globalization and modernization in China， the in-migration of people has increased in Wenshan. Many Miao villages now have migrants with Han， Zhuang and Yi ethnic backgrounds. Different cultures are now interacting with each other. Dishes from Sichuan or Yi cuisines can be seen at the tables of Miao families.
III. Discussion and conclusion
The food culture of the Miao people at Wenshan in Yunnan has undergone changes in food staples， non-staple foods， beverage， food utensils and food processing methods. These changes are caused by factors in the natural and ecological environment， improvement of economic and social life， and multi-cultural interaction with different ethnic groups. Food culture is an important part of human cultures. Changes in food culture can reflect cultural change. From the changes in the food culture of the Miao people in Wenshan， we can also see changes in the Miao peoples concepts of gender role， ethnic memory and boundary， as well as food safety and health. Key Words：Wenshan Miao； change in food culture； anthropology of food； ethnic memory
References：
B. K. Malinowski. The Dynamics of Culture Change. Forge Village， Mass.： The Murray Printing Co.1965.
F. Boas. Race. Language and Culture. New York，Macmillan.1982.
Huang Shuping， Gong Peihua.wenhua renleixue lilun fangfa yanjiu （Study on Theories and Methods of Cultural Anthropology）. Guangzhou： Guangdong Higher Education Press. 2013.
Liao Guoyi， Xu Jingbin.huan beibuwan diqu yaozu yinshi wenhua de bianqian （ On the Changes of the Catering Culture of Yao Ethnic Minority in Round-Beipu-Gulf Area： A Case Study of Nanping Township of Yao Ethnic Minority in Shangsi County）. In Journal of Nanning Polytechnic， 2007，12（4）.
Marvin Harris. Good to Eat： Riddles of Food and Culture. Long Grove， Illinois： Waveland Press， Inc.1985.
Peng Linxu. tujiazu juzhu ji yinshi wenhua bianqian （ The Changes of Tujia Nationality in Living and Food Culture）. In Journal of Hubei Institute for Nationalities（Philosophy and Social Sciences， 2000，18（1）.
Xu Xinjian， Wang Mingk， Xu Jieshun. yinshi wenhua yu zuqun bianjie—guanyu yinshi renleixue de duihua （Catering Culture and Ethnic Boundary： A Conversation about Catering Anthropology）. In Journal of Guangxi University for Nationalities， 2005. 27（6）.
Zhao Rongguang， Xie Dingyuan. yinshi wenhua gailun （Introduction to Food Culture）. Beijing： zhongguo qinggongye chubanshe，2000.