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If you consult the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, which is democratically created by Internet users, you will see a pattern emerges in the phrases used to describe the first female leaders of many countries.
England’s 1)Margaret Thatcher, you will learn, was called “Attila the Hen.” 2)Golda Meir, Israel’s first female prime minister was “the only man in the Cabinet.” 3)Richard Nixon called 4)Indira Gandhi, India’s first female prime minister, “the old witch.” And 5)Angela Merkel, the current 6)chancellor of Germany, has been
7)dubbed “The Iron 8)Frau.”
The conventional explanation for why female leaders are widely perceived as mannish, conniving and ruthless — not just by men but by other women, too—is that politics is tough, and the only way for a woman to survive in a male-dominated field is to have 9)sharp elbows.
In recent years, however, a host of cleverly designed psychological experiments have shown that a subtler dynamic is at play—a motif now on display in the United States as 10)Sen. Hillary Rodham Clinton tries to become the United States’ first female president.
The driving factor in the way women leaders are perceived, experiments show, is not that they are any more ruthless than men who get to the top, but that people have strong and often unconscious conceptions about men, women and the nature of leader-ship.
“The roots are in stereotypes about women, men and leaders,” said Alice Eagly, a social psychologist at 11)Northwestern University. “Culturally, women are the nicer sex and men are more aggressive 12)go-getters. Leaders are generically in our culture more like men than women in the way people think about leaders.”
Experiments show that women 13)vying for leadership roles are automatically assigned two labels. The first is to be seen as nice and warm, but incompetent; the second is to be seen as competent but unpleasant. Women stuck with Label A cannot be leaders, because the stereotype of leadership is incompatible with incompetence. Women who do become leaders get stuck with Label B, because if leadership is unconsciously associated with manliness, cognitive consistency requires that female leaders be stripped of the caring qualities normally associated with women.
“When people say Hillary has no heart or no sense of humor, they are saying she is not warm,” said Susan Fiske, a social psychologist at 14)Prince-ton University. Countless newspaper articles, for example, have asserted that Hillary Clinton 15)falls short of 16)Bill Clinton’s legendary people skills. “People do not question her competence, but her trustworthiness and warmth.”
The first hint that we might be perceiving women leaders as unpleasant even if they are not comes from Wikipedia itself. Before making the transition to leadership and Label B, members of the club of first female leaders often turn out to have been described with Label A. Before ascending to the chancellorship, Merkel was called “the girl” by her mentor, 17)Helmut Kohl. Before Indira Gandhi became prime minister, her chief political rival dismissed her as a “dumb doll.”
Did “the girl” become “Iron Frau” and “dumb doll” become “old witch” because Merkel and Gandhi changed personalities, or because the mantle of leadership changed how they were seen?
While individuals of both sexes can be cold,
18)pushy, conniving and manipulative, those terms get attached to female leaders for no better reason than that they happen to be female leaders, said New York University organizational psychologist Madeline Heilman. “Just knowing they are successful and competent causes people to infer they have engaged in all these behaviors and to disapprove of them.”
In the simplest experimental demonstration of the phenomenon, Heilman recently asked a group of volunteers to evaluate two leaders, a man and a woman. She devised two descriptions of executives with roughly similar qualifications.
Without the volunteers’ knowledge, Heilman regularly interchanged the names of the leaders in the descriptions. For each description, half the volunteers thought they were hearing about an executive named James, while the other half heard exactly the same description applied to an executive called Andrea.
The volunteers were asked two simple questions: to decide which leader seemed less likable, and whether they would prefer James or Andrea as a boss. Nearly three-quarters of the volunteers said they thought Andrea was less likable than James. More than four-fifths chose James as a boss. Women showed the same bias as men: Andrea seemed less likable merely because she was a female leader.
Heilman’s finding replicates the conclusions of other studies. But 19)in a twist that may well have a 20)bearing on Clinton’s campaign, Heilman proved that the reason people see a highly competent woman as less likable than a man with precisely the same qualifications is that such women are automatically perceived to have lost their feminine, caring side.
When Heilman added elements to her descriptions that showed James and Andrea were especially warm and caring people, the psychological bias disappeared entirely. Equal numbers of volunteers now said they would be happy to have either Andrea or James be their leader.
如果你查阅由网民自主创建的在线维基百科全书，你会发现那些用来形容很多国家的首位女性领导人的辞藻来来去去都脱不开一种模式。
你会发现，英国前首相玛格丽特•撒切尔被称为“阿提拉母鸡”；以色列的首位女总理果尔达•梅厄被看作“内阁唯一一位男人”；理查德•尼克松称印度首位女总理英迪拉•甘地是个“老巫婆”；而德国现任总理安格拉•默克尔被人们戏称为“铁娘子”。
为什么大众普遍认为女性领导人都是男人婆，狡诈而残忍？不仅男性这样想，连其他女性自己都持这种看法。对于这个问题，传统的解说是，政治是残酷的角力场，女性只有做事手起刀落，才能在由男性支配的领域里生存下来。
然而近年来，许多设计巧妙的心理学实验显示，有一种更为微妙的力量在左右人们的观念。当前纽约州参议员希拉里•克林顿正在竭力成为美国首位女总统，因此这种现象在美国社会显现得尤为突出。
这些实验显示，人们如何看待女性国家领导人，关键不在于她们是否比男性领袖更冷酷，而是人们对男性、女性和领导力的本质预先就有强烈的、并且通常是无意识的观念。
“根源就在于人们对女性、男性以及领导者早有成见，”美国西北大学社会心理学家艾丽丝•伊格尔说道，“从文化意识来说，女性在两性中是较为和蔼的，男性则更有野心，更积极能干。在我们的文化中，人们想到的领袖的形象一般更像男性而非女性。”
实验显示，有志于担任领袖的女性被人们自动归为两类。A类友善而热情，但能力不足；B类有能力但让人讨厌。被贴上A类标签的女性无法成为领导者，因为这与人们对于领导阶层必须具备能力的成见相抵触。而那些确实成为了领导者的女性则受困于B类标签，因为人们无意识地把领导阶层和男子气概联系在一起。由于人们的意识具有连贯性，女性领导者身上那些通常与女性相联系的体恤性格被剥离。
“当人们说希拉里没心肝，或没有幽默感时，他们是在说她不热情。”普林斯顿大学的一位社会心理学家苏
珊•菲斯克说道。例如，报纸上数不清的文章断言希拉里•克林顿缺乏比尔•克林顿那种神乎其神的人际魅力。“人们质疑的不是她的能力，而是她是否值得信赖，以及是否热情。”
至于我们为何认为女性领导者让人讨厌（即使她们并不），解答的第一条线索就来自维基百科本身。在转变为贴有B类标签的领导者以前，各国的第一个女性领导人往往曾经被贴上A类标签。在晋升为总理以前，默克尔被她的导师赫尔穆特•科尔称为“那小女孩儿”。而英迪拉•甘地成为总理以前，她那个主要的政治对手把她看作是一个“哑巴木偶”，根本不放在心上。
“小女孩儿”成为了“铁娘子”，“哑巴木偶”成为了“老巫婆”是因为默克尔和甘地改变了性格，抑或是因为大权在握，改变了她们的公众形象？
虽然男女都可能冷漠、固执己见、阴险狡诈和有控制欲，但这些词语被用于女性领导人时可以是没有来由的，仅仅因为她们恰好是女性，美国纽约大学组织心理学家玛德琳•黑尔曼说道。“光是知道她们很成功，很有能力，就会导致人们推论她们都具有以上特性，因而不认可她们。”
黑尔曼最近做了一个最简单的实验来证实这种现象，他让一群志愿者评估两位领导者，一位男性，一位女性。她为两位管理者设计了大概相似的资历描述。
在志愿者不知情的情况下，黑尔曼在描述的过程中有规律地互换两位领导者的姓名。每一次描述，有一半志愿者以为他们在听关于一个名叫詹姆斯的管理者的描述，而另外一半志愿者听的是关于一位名叫安德里娅的管理者的相同描述。
接着她问志愿者两个简单的问题：选出哪个领导者似乎较不讨人喜欢，以及他们会选择詹姆斯还是安德里娅做他们的上司。几乎有3/4的志愿者认为，安德里娅不如詹姆斯讨人喜欢。超过4/5的人选择詹姆斯做他们的上司。女性志愿者和男性志愿者一样持有相同的偏见：安德里娅似乎较不讨人喜欢，仅仅因为她是个女性领导者。
黑尔曼的研究和其他研究一样得出了相同的结论。但意外的是，有一点对于希拉里•克林顿的竞选或许有借鉴意义——黑尔曼证实，人们认为一个非常有才能的女性比具有相同资质的男性较不讨人喜欢的原因是，人们很自然地认为这类女性丧失了温柔体贴的一面。
当黑尔曼在描述中添加语句，说明詹姆斯和安德里娅都特别热情体贴以后，人们心理上的偏见完全消失了，支持安德里娅做领导的志愿者，变得与喜欢詹姆斯做领导的志愿者一样多。
小资料：“铁娘子”小传
玛格丽特·撒切尔
玛格丽特·撒切尔强硬而冷静，固执而坦诚，富有同情心。她，一个杂货店店主的女儿，通过坚持不懈的努力，成为了英国历史上第一位女首相。她在任期间，以她的支持者和反对者都未曾预料到的速度，迅速扭转了英国每况愈下的经济。
极具务实精神的她从不轻易让人摆布，敢于与众不同。她运用“思维”或“理智”解决问题，而不是依靠“感觉”作出反应。她办事总是条理清晰，从不对任何问题模棱两可，喜欢速战速决。撒切尔信奉货币主义理论，上台后就进行大刀阔斧的改革。她主要采取四项措施，一是私有化，二是控制货币，三是削减福利开支，四是打击工会力量。
果尔达·梅厄
果尔达·梅厄曾担任以色列劳工部长、外交部长及第四任以色列总理。她是以色列首位握权的女性领导人，素以“不妥协”著称，风格强硬，因以色列在1973年第四次中东战争中受挫，于1974年6月被迫辞职。
1898年5月，梅厄夫人出生于俄国基辅（今属乌克兰）的一个贫寒的犹太人家庭，1969年在她71岁高龄时出任以色列第一位女总理。她最杰出的业绩表现在外交领域。她一共担任了10年的外交部长，是以色列连续任期最长的外交部长。她积极发展以色列同拉丁美洲、亚洲国家，尤其是非洲新独立国家的外交关系。
英迪拉·甘地
英迪拉•甘地，于1966－1980年期间连续四届当选印度总理。在任期间，她的政治方针相当硬朗、立场坚定，是印度近代最为著名及富有争议的政治人物之一。
英迪拉1917年11月生于印度阿拉哈巴德，早年留学瑞士和英国牛津大学，攻读政治、历史、人类学等。12岁起，英迪拉就投身于反对英国殖民当局的运动。印度独立后，英迪拉常陪同父亲参加各类外交活动。1966年，她当选印度第一位女总理。在任期间，她还曾兼任外交、国防、内政等部部长，并且基本执行尼赫鲁的内外政策。1975年7月，她宣布十二项经济政策，通过“绿色革命”和“白色革命”，基本上解决了粮食和牛奶供应问题。在外交上，她推行偏向苏联而又在大国之间保持平衡的政策，注重发展同第三世界的关系。1984年，她由于一些政策失误引起人民不满，于当年10月31日被三名卫兵枪击身亡。
安格拉·默克尔
默克尔是一名基督教牧师的女儿，也是一位物理学博士。她是在东德体制下长大并接受教育的，35岁时开始她的政治生涯。1990年德国统一后，她出身东德的背景被时任基民盟领袖、德国总理科尔看中。科尔有意将其树为东西德平衡的样板。在科尔的提携下，默克尔先后出任德国青年妇女部长、环境部长、基民盟秘书长和副主席等职。科尔曾公开亲密地称默克尔为“小女孩儿”。
1998年，科尔辞去党主席职务。此后，默克尔被推选为基民盟主席，成为该党历史上第一位担任党领袖的女性，也成为德国战后首位女性大党领袖。
默克尔拒绝和人们套近乎。她更多的是直接说出自己的想法，毫无保留地抨击德国存在的问题和对手的弱点。
England’s 1)Margaret Thatcher, you will learn, was called “Attila the Hen.” 2)Golda Meir, Israel’s first female prime minister was “the only man in the Cabinet.” 3)Richard Nixon called 4)Indira Gandhi, India’s first female prime minister, “the old witch.” And 5)Angela Merkel, the current 6)chancellor of Germany, has been
7)dubbed “The Iron 8)Frau.”
The conventional explanation for why female leaders are widely perceived as mannish, conniving and ruthless — not just by men but by other women, too—is that politics is tough, and the only way for a woman to survive in a male-dominated field is to have 9)sharp elbows.
In recent years, however, a host of cleverly designed psychological experiments have shown that a subtler dynamic is at play—a motif now on display in the United States as 10)Sen. Hillary Rodham Clinton tries to become the United States’ first female president.
The driving factor in the way women leaders are perceived, experiments show, is not that they are any more ruthless than men who get to the top, but that people have strong and often unconscious conceptions about men, women and the nature of leader-ship.
“The roots are in stereotypes about women, men and leaders,” said Alice Eagly, a social psychologist at 11)Northwestern University. “Culturally, women are the nicer sex and men are more aggressive 12)go-getters. Leaders are generically in our culture more like men than women in the way people think about leaders.”
Experiments show that women 13)vying for leadership roles are automatically assigned two labels. The first is to be seen as nice and warm, but incompetent; the second is to be seen as competent but unpleasant. Women stuck with Label A cannot be leaders, because the stereotype of leadership is incompatible with incompetence. Women who do become leaders get stuck with Label B, because if leadership is unconsciously associated with manliness, cognitive consistency requires that female leaders be stripped of the caring qualities normally associated with women.
“When people say Hillary has no heart or no sense of humor, they are saying she is not warm,” said Susan Fiske, a social psychologist at 14)Prince-ton University. Countless newspaper articles, for example, have asserted that Hillary Clinton 15)falls short of 16)Bill Clinton’s legendary people skills. “People do not question her competence, but her trustworthiness and warmth.”
The first hint that we might be perceiving women leaders as unpleasant even if they are not comes from Wikipedia itself. Before making the transition to leadership and Label B, members of the club of first female leaders often turn out to have been described with Label A. Before ascending to the chancellorship, Merkel was called “the girl” by her mentor, 17)Helmut Kohl. Before Indira Gandhi became prime minister, her chief political rival dismissed her as a “dumb doll.”
Did “the girl” become “Iron Frau” and “dumb doll” become “old witch” because Merkel and Gandhi changed personalities, or because the mantle of leadership changed how they were seen?
While individuals of both sexes can be cold,
18)pushy, conniving and manipulative, those terms get attached to female leaders for no better reason than that they happen to be female leaders, said New York University organizational psychologist Madeline Heilman. “Just knowing they are successful and competent causes people to infer they have engaged in all these behaviors and to disapprove of them.”
In the simplest experimental demonstration of the phenomenon, Heilman recently asked a group of volunteers to evaluate two leaders, a man and a woman. She devised two descriptions of executives with roughly similar qualifications.
Without the volunteers’ knowledge, Heilman regularly interchanged the names of the leaders in the descriptions. For each description, half the volunteers thought they were hearing about an executive named James, while the other half heard exactly the same description applied to an executive called Andrea.
The volunteers were asked two simple questions: to decide which leader seemed less likable, and whether they would prefer James or Andrea as a boss. Nearly three-quarters of the volunteers said they thought Andrea was less likable than James. More than four-fifths chose James as a boss. Women showed the same bias as men: Andrea seemed less likable merely because she was a female leader.
Heilman’s finding replicates the conclusions of other studies. But 19)in a twist that may well have a 20)bearing on Clinton’s campaign, Heilman proved that the reason people see a highly competent woman as less likable than a man with precisely the same qualifications is that such women are automatically perceived to have lost their feminine, caring side.
When Heilman added elements to her descriptions that showed James and Andrea were especially warm and caring people, the psychological bias disappeared entirely. Equal numbers of volunteers now said they would be happy to have either Andrea or James be their leader.
如果你查阅由网民自主创建的在线维基百科全书，你会发现那些用来形容很多国家的首位女性领导人的辞藻来来去去都脱不开一种模式。
你会发现，英国前首相玛格丽特•撒切尔被称为“阿提拉母鸡”；以色列的首位女总理果尔达•梅厄被看作“内阁唯一一位男人”；理查德•尼克松称印度首位女总理英迪拉•甘地是个“老巫婆”；而德国现任总理安格拉•默克尔被人们戏称为“铁娘子”。
为什么大众普遍认为女性领导人都是男人婆，狡诈而残忍？不仅男性这样想，连其他女性自己都持这种看法。对于这个问题，传统的解说是，政治是残酷的角力场，女性只有做事手起刀落，才能在由男性支配的领域里生存下来。
然而近年来，许多设计巧妙的心理学实验显示，有一种更为微妙的力量在左右人们的观念。当前纽约州参议员希拉里•克林顿正在竭力成为美国首位女总统，因此这种现象在美国社会显现得尤为突出。
这些实验显示，人们如何看待女性国家领导人，关键不在于她们是否比男性领袖更冷酷，而是人们对男性、女性和领导力的本质预先就有强烈的、并且通常是无意识的观念。
“根源就在于人们对女性、男性以及领导者早有成见，”美国西北大学社会心理学家艾丽丝•伊格尔说道，“从文化意识来说，女性在两性中是较为和蔼的，男性则更有野心，更积极能干。在我们的文化中，人们想到的领袖的形象一般更像男性而非女性。”
实验显示，有志于担任领袖的女性被人们自动归为两类。A类友善而热情，但能力不足；B类有能力但让人讨厌。被贴上A类标签的女性无法成为领导者，因为这与人们对于领导阶层必须具备能力的成见相抵触。而那些确实成为了领导者的女性则受困于B类标签，因为人们无意识地把领导阶层和男子气概联系在一起。由于人们的意识具有连贯性，女性领导者身上那些通常与女性相联系的体恤性格被剥离。
“当人们说希拉里没心肝，或没有幽默感时，他们是在说她不热情。”普林斯顿大学的一位社会心理学家苏
珊•菲斯克说道。例如，报纸上数不清的文章断言希拉里•克林顿缺乏比尔•克林顿那种神乎其神的人际魅力。“人们质疑的不是她的能力，而是她是否值得信赖，以及是否热情。”
至于我们为何认为女性领导者让人讨厌（即使她们并不），解答的第一条线索就来自维基百科本身。在转变为贴有B类标签的领导者以前，各国的第一个女性领导人往往曾经被贴上A类标签。在晋升为总理以前，默克尔被她的导师赫尔穆特•科尔称为“那小女孩儿”。而英迪拉•甘地成为总理以前，她那个主要的政治对手把她看作是一个“哑巴木偶”，根本不放在心上。
“小女孩儿”成为了“铁娘子”，“哑巴木偶”成为了“老巫婆”是因为默克尔和甘地改变了性格，抑或是因为大权在握，改变了她们的公众形象？
虽然男女都可能冷漠、固执己见、阴险狡诈和有控制欲，但这些词语被用于女性领导人时可以是没有来由的，仅仅因为她们恰好是女性，美国纽约大学组织心理学家玛德琳•黑尔曼说道。“光是知道她们很成功，很有能力，就会导致人们推论她们都具有以上特性，因而不认可她们。”
黑尔曼最近做了一个最简单的实验来证实这种现象，他让一群志愿者评估两位领导者，一位男性，一位女性。她为两位管理者设计了大概相似的资历描述。
在志愿者不知情的情况下，黑尔曼在描述的过程中有规律地互换两位领导者的姓名。每一次描述，有一半志愿者以为他们在听关于一个名叫詹姆斯的管理者的描述，而另外一半志愿者听的是关于一位名叫安德里娅的管理者的相同描述。
接着她问志愿者两个简单的问题：选出哪个领导者似乎较不讨人喜欢，以及他们会选择詹姆斯还是安德里娅做他们的上司。几乎有3/4的志愿者认为，安德里娅不如詹姆斯讨人喜欢。超过4/5的人选择詹姆斯做他们的上司。女性志愿者和男性志愿者一样持有相同的偏见：安德里娅似乎较不讨人喜欢，仅仅因为她是个女性领导者。
黑尔曼的研究和其他研究一样得出了相同的结论。但意外的是，有一点对于希拉里•克林顿的竞选或许有借鉴意义——黑尔曼证实，人们认为一个非常有才能的女性比具有相同资质的男性较不讨人喜欢的原因是，人们很自然地认为这类女性丧失了温柔体贴的一面。
当黑尔曼在描述中添加语句，说明詹姆斯和安德里娅都特别热情体贴以后，人们心理上的偏见完全消失了，支持安德里娅做领导的志愿者，变得与喜欢詹姆斯做领导的志愿者一样多。
小资料：“铁娘子”小传
玛格丽特·撒切尔
玛格丽特·撒切尔强硬而冷静，固执而坦诚，富有同情心。她，一个杂货店店主的女儿，通过坚持不懈的努力，成为了英国历史上第一位女首相。她在任期间，以她的支持者和反对者都未曾预料到的速度，迅速扭转了英国每况愈下的经济。
极具务实精神的她从不轻易让人摆布，敢于与众不同。她运用“思维”或“理智”解决问题，而不是依靠“感觉”作出反应。她办事总是条理清晰，从不对任何问题模棱两可，喜欢速战速决。撒切尔信奉货币主义理论，上台后就进行大刀阔斧的改革。她主要采取四项措施，一是私有化，二是控制货币，三是削减福利开支，四是打击工会力量。
果尔达·梅厄
果尔达·梅厄曾担任以色列劳工部长、外交部长及第四任以色列总理。她是以色列首位握权的女性领导人，素以“不妥协”著称，风格强硬，因以色列在1973年第四次中东战争中受挫，于1974年6月被迫辞职。
1898年5月，梅厄夫人出生于俄国基辅（今属乌克兰）的一个贫寒的犹太人家庭，1969年在她71岁高龄时出任以色列第一位女总理。她最杰出的业绩表现在外交领域。她一共担任了10年的外交部长，是以色列连续任期最长的外交部长。她积极发展以色列同拉丁美洲、亚洲国家，尤其是非洲新独立国家的外交关系。
英迪拉·甘地
英迪拉•甘地，于1966－1980年期间连续四届当选印度总理。在任期间，她的政治方针相当硬朗、立场坚定，是印度近代最为著名及富有争议的政治人物之一。
英迪拉1917年11月生于印度阿拉哈巴德，早年留学瑞士和英国牛津大学，攻读政治、历史、人类学等。12岁起，英迪拉就投身于反对英国殖民当局的运动。印度独立后，英迪拉常陪同父亲参加各类外交活动。1966年，她当选印度第一位女总理。在任期间，她还曾兼任外交、国防、内政等部部长，并且基本执行尼赫鲁的内外政策。1975年7月，她宣布十二项经济政策，通过“绿色革命”和“白色革命”，基本上解决了粮食和牛奶供应问题。在外交上，她推行偏向苏联而又在大国之间保持平衡的政策，注重发展同第三世界的关系。1984年，她由于一些政策失误引起人民不满，于当年10月31日被三名卫兵枪击身亡。
安格拉·默克尔
默克尔是一名基督教牧师的女儿，也是一位物理学博士。她是在东德体制下长大并接受教育的，35岁时开始她的政治生涯。1990年德国统一后，她出身东德的背景被时任基民盟领袖、德国总理科尔看中。科尔有意将其树为东西德平衡的样板。在科尔的提携下，默克尔先后出任德国青年妇女部长、环境部长、基民盟秘书长和副主席等职。科尔曾公开亲密地称默克尔为“小女孩儿”。
1998年，科尔辞去党主席职务。此后，默克尔被推选为基民盟主席，成为该党历史上第一位担任党领袖的女性，也成为德国战后首位女性大党领袖。
默克尔拒绝和人们套近乎。她更多的是直接说出自己的想法，毫无保留地抨击德国存在的问题和对手的弱点。