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The past 50 years in education have been influenced by three psychologists， although it should be noted they did not all make the link of their theories to education themselves.
* The following terms will be used： young learners （YL）—children aged 6 to 12 years old.
How YL learn—Theorists
Jean Piaget （1896—1980） ，Swiss believed that：
· Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
· Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning.
· Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs. （Psychology 4a）
During these periods YL share the following abilities：
1. Pre-operational = think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
2. Concrete operational = start to think logically about concrete events and can work out problems.
3. Formal operational = adolescent or young adult beings to think abstractly and can reason about hypothetical problems.
Implications for teaching：
1. Only teach concepts when the YL is ready.
2. Use a child-centred approach so learning must be active， eg. discovery learning.
3. The order of teaching is linked to the developmental stages， so the curriculum needs to reflect this.
4. The stages of development are biologically set so the rate of learning cannot be speeded up.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. To adapt the lessons to suit the needs of the individual YL.
2. To be aware of the YL stage of deve-lopment by testing.
3. To provide stimulation with a range of tasks/activities.
4. Produce/provide resources.
5. Stretch the YL so they are developing outside what they already know.
6.Use concrete examples when introducing abstract concepts， e.g. ships for floating for density.
Lev Vygotsky（1896—1934）， Russian believed that：
· Each YL learns in their own way and are influenced by their personal preferences.
· That past experiences and prior knowledge of the YL is used to make of new situations or experiences.
· Language is“the tool of thought” and is particularly important to link new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge.
· That each YL develops by being given tasks which motivate them and are within their “zone of proximal development” ZPD. Implications for teaching：
1. Allow a YL to construct their meaning even if it means they do not get it right first time.
2. Understand there is a gap between what a YL can do through their own efforts and what they could do with a 'more able other'， which could be another YL or an adult.
3. Schools are “mini-societies” and the role of social interaction in making meaning should be understood.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Ask the YL questions to help lead them to find the answers.
2. Give hints which lead to the answers.
3. Help YL notice errors.
4. Not interfere as the YL works out meaning.
5. Re-direct YL towards something they have overlooked.
Jerome Bruner （1915—current）， an American believes that：
· Initially YL learn by physically interacting with their environment.
· Then YL learn by ‘visual literacy’ and understanding images.
· Finally YL learn by ‘encoding’ or making sense of abstract symbols.
Implications for teaching：
1. Working in a group and through social interaction helps YL to make meaning more quickly.
2. That it’s the Teacher’s role to provide tasks which stretch the YL between what they can do on their own and what they can do with a more able other， this term has been termed ‘scaffolding’.
3. Using a ‘spiral curriculum’ whereby the same topic/concept is re-visited at ever more complex levels.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Setting up social interaction opportunities in the classroom.
2. Creatingindividualized learning tasks for YL.
3. Can speed up learning by helping the YL move from the iconic to the symbolic level of understanding by improving their language acquisition.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher's need to：
1. Understand the developmental stages of YL and NOT expose them to concepts which are outside their developmental stage of understanding UNLESS the way they introduce the concept is done in a manner which will be comprehensible to them.
2. Let the YL be ‘active’ participants so if they make errors， and they will， accept that it’s part of the learning process BUT the teacher cannot do the learning for the YL， they have to work it out themselves in their own way. So different activities doing similar concepts.
3. Ensure that pairwork and groupwork involves interaction in a meaningful way， just sitting next to someone or around a table is NOT interaction. 4. Understand more or less what the YL in their classes can do on their own and develop activities to stretch them a little more— BIG WARNING HERE， a ‘LITTLE’ more not lots more， learning is incremental building on what you know already.
How YL learn languages
First language
YL are“natural language acquirers” （British Council） they are not programmed for just one language but for EVERY SINGLE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD！！！！ If you take a Chinese baby from China to the UK for English speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking English. Vice versa you take an English baby and give it to Chinese speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking Chinese. It’s NOT the ethnicity of the adults BUT the language environment.
YL“pick-up” languages， they work out the systems without thinking about them， and by having multiple exposures to the language in different scenarios all day long.
It is not stressful， they are not punished if they get something wrong， in fact they are praised for all the attempts they make！
Language learning is developmental based on previous successes. You know you have been successful because you are understood.
Additional languages
A classroom is a very unnatural place to “pick up” a language. There are many things going against it， eg.
· Amount of time spend being exposed to the additional language is limited （compared to their first language）.
· YL have to share the adult with other learners， so rarely get the 1：1 ratio needed to ‘acquire’ .
· If YL make errors they are punished （a red pen is PUNISHMENT！）.
· YL rarely get praised.
· A classroom is stressful， the longer you are at school the more stressful it becomes.
· YL learn from a coursebook， often exposed to the symbols （writing） of the new language before they have learnt the symbols in their first language and so have NOTHING to compare it to .
· Boys learn language in a different way to girls！！！ So activities which work with girls do not always work with boys. THERE ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY BOYS AND GIRLS LEARN LANGUAGE！
· YL need to build on the concepts and language they have learnt in their first language and so the additional language needs to cover similar knowledge/topics， eg. home， school， family.
· Learning an additional language follows a similar sequence to learning a first language， eg. single words （for identifying objects）， verbs （to tell someone what you want）， questions （to find out more），adjectives （to add description） etc. YOU CANNOT INSTANTLY COME OUT WITH COMPLETE SENTENCES EVEN IF YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THEM. There is a logical sequence which is worth remembering：
You need to HEAR a word before you can SAY it.
You need to SAY a word before you can READ it.
You need to READ a word before you can WRITE it.
Why？
Without hearing language how can you replicate it？
Without speaking the language how can you recognize and decode/encode the written symbols.
And without recognizing the symbols （writing） how can you use them yourself for your own writing.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher’s need to：
1. Accept that learning a language is NOT done in silence！
2. Accept that unless you want deaf and dumb learners they need to listen to a LOT OF language and to start to speak it.
3. Accept that the symbols of a language （written form） are built from a LOT OF listening and speaking.
4. Accept that there is a natural order to language learning starting with single words and eventually developing into fluent， complex language.
5. Accept that learning language is a process with LOTS OF errors along the way—you DON’T get it right first time！
6. Accept that memorizing grammar does NOT mean you know how to USE the language.
在过去的50年里，三位心理学家的研究影响着教育的发展，尽管他们本人并没有都将其理论与教育联系起来。
*在本文中会出现以下术语：低龄学习者——6至12岁的学生。
关于少儿学习模式的几种说法
瑞士心理学家让·皮亚杰（1896—1980）认为：
· 孩子需要个体关注，我们应意识到因材施教的重要性。
· 孩子的学习内容应限定在他们可以理解接受的范围内。
· 孩子发育速度不尽相同，教师应当了解孩子们各自所处的发展阶段，并据此安排符合个体需要的教学。
在不同成长阶段中低龄学习者有着不同的学习能力，如下所示：
1. 前运思期：拥有形象思维能力，学会使用词语和图片代表物体。
2. 具体运思期：开始用逻辑分析具体事情，可以进行运算。
3. 形式运思期：青少年和青年可以进行抽象思考，可以对假设做出推论。
对教学的启示：
1.教授低龄学习者可以理解接受的内容。
2.用儿童中心的形式进行教学，学习方式应当是主动的，比如说发现式学习。
3.教学顺序与发展阶段紧密相连，这一联系应该在课程安排上反映出来。
4.发展阶段是由生理决定的，所以学习不可能揠苗助长。
教师在教学中应该扮演的角色包括：
1.调整课程以适应个体的需要。
2.通过测试了解低龄学习者的发展阶段。
3.通过一系列的任务和活动鼓舞激励低龄学习者。
4.创造并提供学习资源。
5.充分挖掘低龄学习者学习潜能，使他们能够学习未知的事物。
6.使用具体事例来介绍抽象概念，如用船来解释密度和漂浮的关系。
俄国心理学家维果斯基（1896—1934），认为：
· 每个低龄学习者都有着独特的学习方式，这受其个人偏好的影响。
· 低龄学习者的以往经历和先验知识都会对他们了解新的情景、获取新的经验起积极作用。
· 语言是“思维的工具”，尤其在将新的思想与以往经历和先验知识联系的过程中发挥重要作用。
· 任务可以促进低龄学习者的发展，这些任务应当要激发学习者积极性并在他们的近侧发展区间（ZPD）内。
对教学的启示：
1. 允许低龄学习者建构自己的意义，即使这最初可能是错误的。
2. 意识到低龄学习者凭借自己的努力所实现的与他们在“更优秀者”的（既可以是另一名低龄学习者，也可以是成人）帮助下可以实现之间存在差距。
3. 学校是一个“小型社会”，社会互动所发挥的作用应当被充分理解。
教师在教学中应该扮演的角色包括：
1. 向低龄学习者提出问题，并引导他们找到答案。 2. 提供答案的线索。
3. 帮助低龄学习者意识到他们的错误。
4. 不要干预低龄学习者自助的学习与理解。
5. 带领低龄学习者回顾被他们忽略的问题。
美国心理学家杰罗姆·布鲁纳（1915—）认为：
· 每个低龄学习者最初的学习都是通过身体与环境进行互动达成的。
· 其后，他们借助“视觉素养”进行学习，理解图像的意义。
· 最后，低龄学习者通过“编码”或者说通过了解抽象符号来进行学习。
对教学的启示：
1. 团队活动和社会互动帮助低龄学习者更快地理解事物。
2. 教师应该布置任务，让孩子们不仅依靠自己进行学习，同时从“更优秀者”处获得帮助，即让他们充当“脚手架”。
3. 采用“螺旋式课程”，即不断在更高要求上反复学习相同的话题/概念。
教师在教学中应该扮演的角色包括：
1. 在教室内创造进行社会互动的机会。
2. 为低龄学习者设计个性化的学习任务。
3. 可以通过帮助提高低龄学习者的语言能力，使他们的理解能力由图像层次上升到符号层次，从而加速他们的学习。
对教学的启示：
老师们需要：
1. 了解低龄学习者的发展阶段，如果不能找到合适的方式，就不要教授他们超出其理解能力发展阶段的知识。
2. 让低龄学习者积极主动参与学习过程，他们必然会犯错误，这是学习过程的一部分，教师不能够代替低龄学习者进行学习，他们必须用自己独特的方式来完成；因此，不同的活动有着相似的宗旨。
3. 确保结对活动和小组活动中孩子进行了有效的交流。只是坐在一起并不意味着交流。
4. 了解什么是低龄学习者在课堂上可以独立完成的，并设计对他们稍有挑战性的活动。注意：应当是“稍微”而非“非常”，学习是建立在已知上的循序渐进的过程，不能一蹴而就。
低龄学习者的语言学习
第一语言习得
低龄学习者是“天生的语言学习者”（英国文化委员会）。他们并不是只适合于学习一种语言，而是可以高效地学习世界上的任一语言。如果你将一个中国孩子带到英国，并让英语母语者将其抚养长大，这个孩子长大后会使用英语。相反，如果你将一个英国孩子带到中国，由中文母语者带大，这个孩子以后将会说中文。孩子的语言学习与大人的种族无关，而是受语言环境的影响。
低龄学习者能轻易地从环境中习得新的语言，他们通过长时间接触不同情境下的语言使用，而在不经意间掌握了语言体系。
这个过程没有压力，他们即使犯错也不会面临惩罚。事实上，他们做出的每一个尝试都能得到赞扬。
语言学习是建立在先前的成功上的循序渐进的过程。当别人通过你的语言理解你的时候，你就取得了成功。
外语习得
教室并不是一个自然的语言学习环境。在许多因素上存在不同：
· 接触到外语的时间是有限的（相较第一语言而言）。
· 一个成年人需要指导多名低龄学习者，一对一交流的机会很少，而这对于语言习得又非常重要。
· 一旦低龄学习者犯错，他们就将被惩罚（“红色的批注”就是一种惩罚）。
· 低龄学习者很少被表扬。
· 课堂环境压力很大，而且在学校待得越久，压力就越大。
· 低龄学习者利用课本学习。他们往往在还没有了解一个物体在母语中的语言符号时就学习了同一物体在外语中的语言符号，这使得他们的学习缺少参照。
· 男孩和女孩学习语言的方法是不同的。对女孩有效的教学活动并不一定适用于男孩。语言学习存在性别差异。
· 低龄学习者的外语学习建立在他们对母语的概念与语言的了解上，所以，外语学习应当覆盖他们熟悉的话题，如家，学校，家庭等。
· 学习外语与母语有着相似的程序，比如说：单个词语（识别物品），动词（告诉他人你的需求），疑问句（了解更多），形容词（添加描述）等。曾接触过完整的句子并不意味着你能够迅速自己造出句子来。
语言学习遵循如下的逻辑顺序：
在学会说一个词语前，我们必须先听过它。
在学会读一个词语前，我们必须先说过它。
在学会写一个词语前，我们必须先读过它。
为什么会有这样的规律呢？
如果没有听过，我们就无法模仿说话。
如果没有说过，我们就不能辨认和解码/编码与之对应的文字符号。
如果不能够辨认的话，我们就无法在自己的写作中正确运用。
对教学的启示：
老师们需要：
1. 意识到哑巴英语是行不通的。
2. 意识到锻炼学生的听说能力必须要让他们进行大量听力和口语的练习。
3. 意识到对书面语的学习是建立听说基础上的。
4. 意识到语言学习有着自然的规律：从单个的词语开始，慢慢发展成为流利、复杂的语篇。
5. 意识到语言学习过程中错误无法避免，教师并不需要在第一时间进行纠正。
6. 意识到掌握语法并不意味着掌握了语言的应用。
The past 50 years in education have been influenced by three psychologists， although it should be noted they did not all make the link of their theories to education themselves.
* The following terms will be used： young learners （YL）—children aged 6 to 12 years old. How YL learn—Theorists
Jean Piaget （1896—1980） ，Swiss believed that：
· Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
· Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning.
· Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs. （Psychology 4a）
During these periods YL share the following abilities：
1. Pre-operational = think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
2. Concrete operational = start to think logically about concrete events and can work out problems.
3. Formal operational = adolescent or young adult beings to think abstractly and can reason about hypothetical problems.
Implications for teaching：
1. Only teach concepts when the YL is ready.
2. Use a child-centred approach so learning must be active， eg. discovery learning.
3. The order of teaching is linked to the developmental stages， so the curriculum needs to reflect this.
4. The stages of development are biologically set so the rate of learning cannot be speeded up.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. To adapt the lessons to suit the needs of the individual YL.
2. To be aware of the YL stage of deve-lopment by testing.
3. To provide stimulation with a range of tasks/activities.
4. Produce/provide resources.
5. Stretch the YL so they are developing outside what they already know.
6.Use concrete examples when introducing abstract concepts， e.g. ships for floating for density.
Lev Vygotsky（1896—1934）， Russian believed that：
· Each YL learns in their own way and are influenced by their personal preferences.
· That past experiences and prior knowledge of the YL is used to make of new situations or experiences.
· Language is“the tool of thought” and is particularly important to link new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge.
· That each YL develops by being given tasks which motivate them and are within their “zone of proximal development” ZPD.
Implications for teaching：
1. Allow a YL to construct their meaning even if it means they do not get it right first time.
2. Understand there is a gap between what a YL can do through their own efforts and what they could do with a 'more able other'， which could be another YL or an adult. 3. Schools are “mini-societies” and the role of social interaction in making meaning should be understood.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Ask the YL questions to help lead them to find the answers.
2. Give hints which lead to the answers.
3. Help YL notice errors.
4. Not interfere as the YL works out meaning.
5. Re-direct YL towards something they have overlooked.
Jerome Bruner （1915—current）， an American believes that：
· Initially YL learn by physically interacting with their environment.
· Then YL learn by ‘visual literacy’ and understanding images.
· Finally YL learn by ‘encoding’ or making sense of abstract symbols.
Implications for teaching：
1. Working in a group and through social interaction helps YL to make meaning more quickly.
2. That it’s the Teacher’s role to provide tasks which stretch the YL between what they can do on their own and what they can do with a more able other， this term has been termed ‘scaffolding’.
3. Using a ‘spiral curriculum’ whereby the same topic/concept is re-visited at ever more complex levels.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Setting up social interaction opportunities in the classroom.
2. Creatingindividualized learning tasks for YL.
3. Can speed up learning by helping the YL move from the iconic to the symbolic level of understanding by improving their language acquisition.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher's need to：
1. Understand the developmental stages of YL and NOT expose them to concepts which are outside their developmental stage of understanding UNLESS the way they introduce the concept is done in a manner which will be comprehensible to them.
2. Let the YL be ‘active’ participants so if they make errors， and they will， accept that it’s part of the learning process BUT the teacher cannot do the learning for the YL， they have to work it out themselves in their own way. So different activities doing similar concepts.
3. Ensure that pairwork and groupwork involves interaction in a meaningful way， just sitting next to someone or around a table is NOT interaction.
4. Understand more or less what the YL in their classes can do on their own and develop activities to stretch them a little more— BIG WARNING HERE， a ‘LITTLE’ more not lots more， learning is incremental building on what you know already.
How YL learn languages First language
YL are“natural language acquirers” （British Council） they are not programmed for just one language but for EVERY SINGLE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD！！！！ If you take a Chinese baby from China to the UK for English speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking English. Vice versa you take an English baby and give it to Chinese speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking Chinese. It’s NOT the ethnicity of the adults BUT the language environment.
YL“pick-up” languages， they work out the systems without thinking about them， and by having multiple exposures to the language in different scenarios all day long.
It is not stressful， they are not punished if they get something wrong， in fact they are praised for all the attempts they make！
Language learning is developmental based on previous successes. You know you have been successful because you are understood.
Additional languages
A classroom is a very unnatural place to “pick up” a language. There are many things going against it， eg.
· Amount of time spend being exposed to the additional language is limited （compared to their first language）.
· YL have to share the adult with other learners， so rarely get the 1：1 ratio needed to ‘acquire’ .
· If YL make errors they are punished （a red pen is PUNISHMENT！）.
· YL rarely get praised.
· A classroom is stressful， the longer you are at school the more stressful it becomes.
· YL learn from a coursebook， often exposed to the symbols （writing） of the new language before they have learnt the symbols in their first language and so have NOTHING to compare it to .
· Boys learn language in a different way to girls！！！ So activities which work with girls do not always work with boys. THERE ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY BOYS AND GIRLS LEARN LANGUAGE！
· YL need to build on the concepts and language they have learnt in their first language and so the additional language needs to cover similar knowledge/topics， eg. home， school， family.
· Learning an additional language follows a similar sequence to learning a first language， eg. single words （for identifying objects）， verbs （to tell someone what you want）， questions （to find out more），adjectives （to add description） etc. YOU CANNOT INSTANTLY COME OUT WITH COMPLETE SENTENCES EVEN IF YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THEM.
There is a logical sequence which is worth remembering： You need to HEAR a word before you can SAY it.
You need to SAY a word before you can READ it.
You need to READ a word before you can WRITE it.
Why？
Without hearing language how can you replicate it？
Without speaking the language how can you recognize and decode/encode the written symbols.
And without recognizing the symbols （writing） how can you use them yourself for your own writing.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher’s need to：
1. Accept that learning a language is NOT done in silence！
2. Accept that unless you want deaf and dumb learners they need to listen to a LOT OF language and to start to speak it.
3. Accept that the symbols of a language （written form） are built from a LOT OF listening and speaking.
4. Accept that there is a natural order to language learning starting with single words and eventually developing into fluent， complex language.
5. Accept that learning language is a process with LOTS OF errors along the way—you DON’T get it right first time！
6. Accept that memorizing grammar does NOT mean you know how to USE the language.
The past 50 years in education have been influenced by three psychologists， although it should be noted they did not all make the link of their theories to education themselves.
* The following terms will be used： young learners （YL）—children aged 6 to 12 years old.
How YL learn—Theorists
Jean Piaget （1896—1980） ，Swiss believed that：
· Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
· Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning.
· Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs. （Psychology 4a）
During these periods YL share the following abilities：
1. Pre-operational = think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
2. Concrete operational = start to think logically about concrete events and can work out problems.
3. Formal operational = adolescent or young adult beings to think abstractly and can reason about hypothetical problems.
Implications for teaching：
1. Only teach concepts when the YL is ready.
2. Use a child-centred approach so learning must be active， eg. discovery learning. 3. The order of teaching is linked to the developmental stages， so the curriculum needs to reflect this.
4. The stages of development are biologically set so the rate of learning cannot be speeded up.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. To adapt the lessons to suit the needs of the individual YL.
2. To be aware of the YL stage of deve-lopment by testing.
3. To provide stimulation with a range of tasks/activities.
4. Produce/provide resources.
5. Stretch the YL so they are developing outside what they already know.
6.Use concrete examples when introducing abstract concepts， e.g. ships for floating for density.
Lev Vygotsky（1896—1934）， Russian believed that：
· Each YL learns in their own way and are influenced by their personal preferences.
· That past experiences and prior knowledge of the YL is used to make of new situations or experiences.
· Language is“the tool of thought” and is particularly important to link new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge.
· That each YL develops by being given tasks which motivate them and are within their “zone of proximal development” ZPD.
Implications for teaching：
1. Allow a YL to construct their meaning even if it means they do not get it right first time.
2. Understand there is a gap between what a YL can do through their own efforts and what they could do with a 'more able other'， which could be another YL or an adult.
3. Schools are “mini-societies” and the role of social interaction in making meaning should be understood.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Ask the YL questions to help lead them to find the answers.
2. Give hints which lead to the answers.
3. Help YL notice errors.
4. Not interfere as the YL works out meaning.
5. Re-direct YL towards something they have overlooked.
Jerome Bruner （1915—current）， an American believes that：
· Initially YL learn by physically interacting with their environment.
· Then YL learn by ‘visual literacy’ and understanding images.
· Finally YL learn by ‘encoding’ or making sense of abstract symbols.
Implications for teaching：
1. Working in a group and through social interaction helps YL to make meaning more quickly.
2. That it’s the Teacher’s role to provide tasks which stretch the YL between what they can do on their own and what they can do with a more able other， this term has been termed ‘scaffolding’. 3. Using a ‘spiral curriculum’ whereby the same topic/concept is re-visited at ever more complex levels.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Setting up social interaction opportunities in the classroom.
2. Creatingindividualized learning tasks for YL.
3. Can speed up learning by helping the YL move from the iconic to the symbolic level of understanding by improving their language acquisition.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher's need to：
1. Understand the developmental stages of YL and NOT expose them to concepts which are outside their developmental stage of understanding UNLESS the way they introduce the concept is done in a manner which will be comprehensible to them.
2. Let the YL be ‘active’ participants so if they make errors， and they will， accept that it’s part of the learning process BUT the teacher cannot do the learning for the YL， they have to work it out themselves in their own way. So different activities doing similar concepts.
3. Ensure that pairwork and groupwork involves interaction in a meaningful way， just sitting next to someone or around a table is NOT interaction.
4. Understand more or less what the YL in their classes can do on their own and develop activities to stretch them a little more— BIG WARNING HERE， a ‘LITTLE’ more not lots more， learning is incremental building on what you know already.
How YL learn languages
First language
YL are“natural language acquirers” （British Council） they are not programmed for just one language but for EVERY SINGLE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD！！！！ If you take a Chinese baby from China to the UK for English speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking English. Vice versa you take an English baby and give it to Chinese speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking Chinese. It’s NOT the ethnicity of the adults BUT the language environment.
YL“pick-up” languages， they work out the systems without thinking about them， and by having multiple exposures to the language in different scenarios all day long.
It is not stressful， they are not punished if they get something wrong， in fact they are praised for all the attempts they make！
Language learning is developmental based on previous successes. You know you have been successful because you are understood.
Additional languages
A classroom is a very unnatural place to “pick up” a language. There are many things going against it， eg. · Amount of time spend being exposed to the additional language is limited （compared to their first language）.
· YL have to share the adult with other learners， so rarely get the 1：1 ratio needed to ‘acquire’ .
· If YL make errors they are punished （a red pen is PUNISHMENT！）.
· YL rarely get praised.
· A classroom is stressful， the longer you are at school the more stressful it becomes.
· YL learn from a coursebook， often exposed to the symbols （writing） of the new language before they have learnt the symbols in their first language and so have NOTHING to compare it to .
· Boys learn language in a different way to girls！！！ So activities which work with girls do not always work with boys. THERE ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY BOYS AND GIRLS LEARN LANGUAGE！
· YL need to build on the concepts and language they have learnt in their first language and so the additional language needs to cover similar knowledge/topics， eg. home， school， family.
· Learning an additional language follows a similar sequence to learning a first language， eg. single words （for identifying objects）， verbs （to tell someone what you want）， questions （to find out more），adjectives （to add description） etc. YOU CANNOT INSTANTLY COME OUT WITH COMPLETE SENTENCES EVEN IF YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THEM.
There is a logical sequence which is worth remembering：
You need to HEAR a word before you can SAY it.
You need to SAY a word before you can READ it.
You need to READ a word before you can WRITE it.
Why？
Without hearing language how can you replicate it？
Without speaking the language how can you recognize and decode/encode the written symbols.
And without recognizing the symbols （writing） how can you use them yourself for your own writing.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher’s need to：
1. Accept that learning a language is NOT done in silence！
2. Accept that unless you want deaf and dumb learners they need to listen to a LOT OF language and to start to speak it.
3. Accept that the symbols of a language （written form） are built from a LOT OF listening and speaking.
4. Accept that there is a natural order to language learning starting with single words and eventually developing into fluent， complex language.
5. Accept that learning language is a process with LOTS OF errors along the way—you DON’T get it right first time！
6. Accept that memorizing grammar does NOT mean you know how to USE the language.
* The following terms will be used： young learners （YL）—children aged 6 to 12 years old.
How YL learn—Theorists
Jean Piaget （1896—1980） ，Swiss believed that：
· Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
· Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning.
· Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs. （Psychology 4a）
During these periods YL share the following abilities：
1. Pre-operational = think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
2. Concrete operational = start to think logically about concrete events and can work out problems.
3. Formal operational = adolescent or young adult beings to think abstractly and can reason about hypothetical problems.
Implications for teaching：
1. Only teach concepts when the YL is ready.
2. Use a child-centred approach so learning must be active， eg. discovery learning.
3. The order of teaching is linked to the developmental stages， so the curriculum needs to reflect this.
4. The stages of development are biologically set so the rate of learning cannot be speeded up.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. To adapt the lessons to suit the needs of the individual YL.
2. To be aware of the YL stage of deve-lopment by testing.
3. To provide stimulation with a range of tasks/activities.
4. Produce/provide resources.
5. Stretch the YL so they are developing outside what they already know.
6.Use concrete examples when introducing abstract concepts， e.g. ships for floating for density.
Lev Vygotsky（1896—1934）， Russian believed that：
· Each YL learns in their own way and are influenced by their personal preferences.
· That past experiences and prior knowledge of the YL is used to make of new situations or experiences.
· Language is“the tool of thought” and is particularly important to link new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge.
· That each YL develops by being given tasks which motivate them and are within their “zone of proximal development” ZPD. Implications for teaching：
1. Allow a YL to construct their meaning even if it means they do not get it right first time.
2. Understand there is a gap between what a YL can do through their own efforts and what they could do with a 'more able other'， which could be another YL or an adult.
3. Schools are “mini-societies” and the role of social interaction in making meaning should be understood.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Ask the YL questions to help lead them to find the answers.
2. Give hints which lead to the answers.
3. Help YL notice errors.
4. Not interfere as the YL works out meaning.
5. Re-direct YL towards something they have overlooked.
Jerome Bruner （1915—current）， an American believes that：
· Initially YL learn by physically interacting with their environment.
· Then YL learn by ‘visual literacy’ and understanding images.
· Finally YL learn by ‘encoding’ or making sense of abstract symbols.
Implications for teaching：
1. Working in a group and through social interaction helps YL to make meaning more quickly.
2. That it’s the Teacher’s role to provide tasks which stretch the YL between what they can do on their own and what they can do with a more able other， this term has been termed ‘scaffolding’.
3. Using a ‘spiral curriculum’ whereby the same topic/concept is re-visited at ever more complex levels.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Setting up social interaction opportunities in the classroom.
2. Creatingindividualized learning tasks for YL.
3. Can speed up learning by helping the YL move from the iconic to the symbolic level of understanding by improving their language acquisition.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher's need to：
1. Understand the developmental stages of YL and NOT expose them to concepts which are outside their developmental stage of understanding UNLESS the way they introduce the concept is done in a manner which will be comprehensible to them.
2. Let the YL be ‘active’ participants so if they make errors， and they will， accept that it’s part of the learning process BUT the teacher cannot do the learning for the YL， they have to work it out themselves in their own way. So different activities doing similar concepts.
3. Ensure that pairwork and groupwork involves interaction in a meaningful way， just sitting next to someone or around a table is NOT interaction. 4. Understand more or less what the YL in their classes can do on their own and develop activities to stretch them a little more— BIG WARNING HERE， a ‘LITTLE’ more not lots more， learning is incremental building on what you know already.
How YL learn languages
First language
YL are“natural language acquirers” （British Council） they are not programmed for just one language but for EVERY SINGLE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD！！！！ If you take a Chinese baby from China to the UK for English speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking English. Vice versa you take an English baby and give it to Chinese speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking Chinese. It’s NOT the ethnicity of the adults BUT the language environment.
YL“pick-up” languages， they work out the systems without thinking about them， and by having multiple exposures to the language in different scenarios all day long.
It is not stressful， they are not punished if they get something wrong， in fact they are praised for all the attempts they make！
Language learning is developmental based on previous successes. You know you have been successful because you are understood.
Additional languages
A classroom is a very unnatural place to “pick up” a language. There are many things going against it， eg.
· Amount of time spend being exposed to the additional language is limited （compared to their first language）.
· YL have to share the adult with other learners， so rarely get the 1：1 ratio needed to ‘acquire’ .
· If YL make errors they are punished （a red pen is PUNISHMENT！）.
· YL rarely get praised.
· A classroom is stressful， the longer you are at school the more stressful it becomes.
· YL learn from a coursebook， often exposed to the symbols （writing） of the new language before they have learnt the symbols in their first language and so have NOTHING to compare it to .
· Boys learn language in a different way to girls！！！ So activities which work with girls do not always work with boys. THERE ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY BOYS AND GIRLS LEARN LANGUAGE！
· YL need to build on the concepts and language they have learnt in their first language and so the additional language needs to cover similar knowledge/topics， eg. home， school， family.
· Learning an additional language follows a similar sequence to learning a first language， eg. single words （for identifying objects）， verbs （to tell someone what you want）， questions （to find out more），adjectives （to add description） etc. YOU CANNOT INSTANTLY COME OUT WITH COMPLETE SENTENCES EVEN IF YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THEM. There is a logical sequence which is worth remembering：
You need to HEAR a word before you can SAY it.
You need to SAY a word before you can READ it.
You need to READ a word before you can WRITE it.
Why？
Without hearing language how can you replicate it？
Without speaking the language how can you recognize and decode/encode the written symbols.
And without recognizing the symbols （writing） how can you use them yourself for your own writing.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher’s need to：
1. Accept that learning a language is NOT done in silence！
2. Accept that unless you want deaf and dumb learners they need to listen to a LOT OF language and to start to speak it.
3. Accept that the symbols of a language （written form） are built from a LOT OF listening and speaking.
4. Accept that there is a natural order to language learning starting with single words and eventually developing into fluent， complex language.
5. Accept that learning language is a process with LOTS OF errors along the way—you DON’T get it right first time！
6. Accept that memorizing grammar does NOT mean you know how to USE the language.
在过去的50年里，三位心理学家的研究影响着教育的发展，尽管他们本人并没有都将其理论与教育联系起来。
*在本文中会出现以下术语：低龄学习者——6至12岁的学生。
关于少儿学习模式的几种说法
瑞士心理学家让·皮亚杰（1896—1980）认为：
· 孩子需要个体关注，我们应意识到因材施教的重要性。
· 孩子的学习内容应限定在他们可以理解接受的范围内。
· 孩子发育速度不尽相同，教师应当了解孩子们各自所处的发展阶段，并据此安排符合个体需要的教学。
在不同成长阶段中低龄学习者有着不同的学习能力，如下所示：
1. 前运思期：拥有形象思维能力，学会使用词语和图片代表物体。
2. 具体运思期：开始用逻辑分析具体事情，可以进行运算。
3. 形式运思期：青少年和青年可以进行抽象思考，可以对假设做出推论。
对教学的启示：
1.教授低龄学习者可以理解接受的内容。
2.用儿童中心的形式进行教学，学习方式应当是主动的，比如说发现式学习。
3.教学顺序与发展阶段紧密相连，这一联系应该在课程安排上反映出来。
4.发展阶段是由生理决定的，所以学习不可能揠苗助长。
教师在教学中应该扮演的角色包括：
1.调整课程以适应个体的需要。
2.通过测试了解低龄学习者的发展阶段。
3.通过一系列的任务和活动鼓舞激励低龄学习者。
4.创造并提供学习资源。
5.充分挖掘低龄学习者学习潜能，使他们能够学习未知的事物。
6.使用具体事例来介绍抽象概念，如用船来解释密度和漂浮的关系。
俄国心理学家维果斯基（1896—1934），认为：
· 每个低龄学习者都有着独特的学习方式，这受其个人偏好的影响。
· 低龄学习者的以往经历和先验知识都会对他们了解新的情景、获取新的经验起积极作用。
· 语言是“思维的工具”，尤其在将新的思想与以往经历和先验知识联系的过程中发挥重要作用。
· 任务可以促进低龄学习者的发展，这些任务应当要激发学习者积极性并在他们的近侧发展区间（ZPD）内。
对教学的启示：
1. 允许低龄学习者建构自己的意义，即使这最初可能是错误的。
2. 意识到低龄学习者凭借自己的努力所实现的与他们在“更优秀者”的（既可以是另一名低龄学习者，也可以是成人）帮助下可以实现之间存在差距。
3. 学校是一个“小型社会”，社会互动所发挥的作用应当被充分理解。
教师在教学中应该扮演的角色包括：
1. 向低龄学习者提出问题，并引导他们找到答案。 2. 提供答案的线索。
3. 帮助低龄学习者意识到他们的错误。
4. 不要干预低龄学习者自助的学习与理解。
5. 带领低龄学习者回顾被他们忽略的问题。
美国心理学家杰罗姆·布鲁纳（1915—）认为：
· 每个低龄学习者最初的学习都是通过身体与环境进行互动达成的。
· 其后，他们借助“视觉素养”进行学习，理解图像的意义。
· 最后，低龄学习者通过“编码”或者说通过了解抽象符号来进行学习。
对教学的启示：
1. 团队活动和社会互动帮助低龄学习者更快地理解事物。
2. 教师应该布置任务，让孩子们不仅依靠自己进行学习，同时从“更优秀者”处获得帮助，即让他们充当“脚手架”。
3. 采用“螺旋式课程”，即不断在更高要求上反复学习相同的话题/概念。
教师在教学中应该扮演的角色包括：
1. 在教室内创造进行社会互动的机会。
2. 为低龄学习者设计个性化的学习任务。
3. 可以通过帮助提高低龄学习者的语言能力，使他们的理解能力由图像层次上升到符号层次，从而加速他们的学习。
对教学的启示：
老师们需要：
1. 了解低龄学习者的发展阶段，如果不能找到合适的方式，就不要教授他们超出其理解能力发展阶段的知识。
2. 让低龄学习者积极主动参与学习过程，他们必然会犯错误，这是学习过程的一部分，教师不能够代替低龄学习者进行学习，他们必须用自己独特的方式来完成；因此，不同的活动有着相似的宗旨。
3. 确保结对活动和小组活动中孩子进行了有效的交流。只是坐在一起并不意味着交流。
4. 了解什么是低龄学习者在课堂上可以独立完成的，并设计对他们稍有挑战性的活动。注意：应当是“稍微”而非“非常”，学习是建立在已知上的循序渐进的过程，不能一蹴而就。
低龄学习者的语言学习
第一语言习得
低龄学习者是“天生的语言学习者”（英国文化委员会）。他们并不是只适合于学习一种语言，而是可以高效地学习世界上的任一语言。如果你将一个中国孩子带到英国，并让英语母语者将其抚养长大，这个孩子长大后会使用英语。相反，如果你将一个英国孩子带到中国，由中文母语者带大，这个孩子以后将会说中文。孩子的语言学习与大人的种族无关，而是受语言环境的影响。
低龄学习者能轻易地从环境中习得新的语言，他们通过长时间接触不同情境下的语言使用，而在不经意间掌握了语言体系。
这个过程没有压力，他们即使犯错也不会面临惩罚。事实上，他们做出的每一个尝试都能得到赞扬。
语言学习是建立在先前的成功上的循序渐进的过程。当别人通过你的语言理解你的时候，你就取得了成功。
外语习得
教室并不是一个自然的语言学习环境。在许多因素上存在不同：
· 接触到外语的时间是有限的（相较第一语言而言）。
· 一个成年人需要指导多名低龄学习者，一对一交流的机会很少，而这对于语言习得又非常重要。
· 一旦低龄学习者犯错，他们就将被惩罚（“红色的批注”就是一种惩罚）。
· 低龄学习者很少被表扬。
· 课堂环境压力很大，而且在学校待得越久，压力就越大。
· 低龄学习者利用课本学习。他们往往在还没有了解一个物体在母语中的语言符号时就学习了同一物体在外语中的语言符号，这使得他们的学习缺少参照。
· 男孩和女孩学习语言的方法是不同的。对女孩有效的教学活动并不一定适用于男孩。语言学习存在性别差异。
· 低龄学习者的外语学习建立在他们对母语的概念与语言的了解上，所以，外语学习应当覆盖他们熟悉的话题，如家，学校，家庭等。
· 学习外语与母语有着相似的程序，比如说：单个词语（识别物品），动词（告诉他人你的需求），疑问句（了解更多），形容词（添加描述）等。曾接触过完整的句子并不意味着你能够迅速自己造出句子来。
语言学习遵循如下的逻辑顺序：
在学会说一个词语前，我们必须先听过它。
在学会读一个词语前，我们必须先说过它。
在学会写一个词语前，我们必须先读过它。
为什么会有这样的规律呢？
如果没有听过，我们就无法模仿说话。
如果没有说过，我们就不能辨认和解码/编码与之对应的文字符号。
如果不能够辨认的话，我们就无法在自己的写作中正确运用。
对教学的启示：
老师们需要：
1. 意识到哑巴英语是行不通的。
2. 意识到锻炼学生的听说能力必须要让他们进行大量听力和口语的练习。
3. 意识到对书面语的学习是建立听说基础上的。
4. 意识到语言学习有着自然的规律：从单个的词语开始，慢慢发展成为流利、复杂的语篇。
5. 意识到语言学习过程中错误无法避免，教师并不需要在第一时间进行纠正。
6. 意识到掌握语法并不意味着掌握了语言的应用。
The past 50 years in education have been influenced by three psychologists， although it should be noted they did not all make the link of their theories to education themselves.
* The following terms will be used： young learners （YL）—children aged 6 to 12 years old. How YL learn—Theorists
Jean Piaget （1896—1980） ，Swiss believed that：
· Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
· Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning.
· Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs. （Psychology 4a）
During these periods YL share the following abilities：
1. Pre-operational = think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
2. Concrete operational = start to think logically about concrete events and can work out problems.
3. Formal operational = adolescent or young adult beings to think abstractly and can reason about hypothetical problems.
Implications for teaching：
1. Only teach concepts when the YL is ready.
2. Use a child-centred approach so learning must be active， eg. discovery learning.
3. The order of teaching is linked to the developmental stages， so the curriculum needs to reflect this.
4. The stages of development are biologically set so the rate of learning cannot be speeded up.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. To adapt the lessons to suit the needs of the individual YL.
2. To be aware of the YL stage of deve-lopment by testing.
3. To provide stimulation with a range of tasks/activities.
4. Produce/provide resources.
5. Stretch the YL so they are developing outside what they already know.
6.Use concrete examples when introducing abstract concepts， e.g. ships for floating for density.
Lev Vygotsky（1896—1934）， Russian believed that：
· Each YL learns in their own way and are influenced by their personal preferences.
· That past experiences and prior knowledge of the YL is used to make of new situations or experiences.
· Language is“the tool of thought” and is particularly important to link new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge.
· That each YL develops by being given tasks which motivate them and are within their “zone of proximal development” ZPD.
Implications for teaching：
1. Allow a YL to construct their meaning even if it means they do not get it right first time.
2. Understand there is a gap between what a YL can do through their own efforts and what they could do with a 'more able other'， which could be another YL or an adult. 3. Schools are “mini-societies” and the role of social interaction in making meaning should be understood.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Ask the YL questions to help lead them to find the answers.
2. Give hints which lead to the answers.
3. Help YL notice errors.
4. Not interfere as the YL works out meaning.
5. Re-direct YL towards something they have overlooked.
Jerome Bruner （1915—current）， an American believes that：
· Initially YL learn by physically interacting with their environment.
· Then YL learn by ‘visual literacy’ and understanding images.
· Finally YL learn by ‘encoding’ or making sense of abstract symbols.
Implications for teaching：
1. Working in a group and through social interaction helps YL to make meaning more quickly.
2. That it’s the Teacher’s role to provide tasks which stretch the YL between what they can do on their own and what they can do with a more able other， this term has been termed ‘scaffolding’.
3. Using a ‘spiral curriculum’ whereby the same topic/concept is re-visited at ever more complex levels.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Setting up social interaction opportunities in the classroom.
2. Creatingindividualized learning tasks for YL.
3. Can speed up learning by helping the YL move from the iconic to the symbolic level of understanding by improving their language acquisition.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher's need to：
1. Understand the developmental stages of YL and NOT expose them to concepts which are outside their developmental stage of understanding UNLESS the way they introduce the concept is done in a manner which will be comprehensible to them.
2. Let the YL be ‘active’ participants so if they make errors， and they will， accept that it’s part of the learning process BUT the teacher cannot do the learning for the YL， they have to work it out themselves in their own way. So different activities doing similar concepts.
3. Ensure that pairwork and groupwork involves interaction in a meaningful way， just sitting next to someone or around a table is NOT interaction.
4. Understand more or less what the YL in their classes can do on their own and develop activities to stretch them a little more— BIG WARNING HERE， a ‘LITTLE’ more not lots more， learning is incremental building on what you know already.
How YL learn languages First language
YL are“natural language acquirers” （British Council） they are not programmed for just one language but for EVERY SINGLE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD！！！！ If you take a Chinese baby from China to the UK for English speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking English. Vice versa you take an English baby and give it to Chinese speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking Chinese. It’s NOT the ethnicity of the adults BUT the language environment.
YL“pick-up” languages， they work out the systems without thinking about them， and by having multiple exposures to the language in different scenarios all day long.
It is not stressful， they are not punished if they get something wrong， in fact they are praised for all the attempts they make！
Language learning is developmental based on previous successes. You know you have been successful because you are understood.
Additional languages
A classroom is a very unnatural place to “pick up” a language. There are many things going against it， eg.
· Amount of time spend being exposed to the additional language is limited （compared to their first language）.
· YL have to share the adult with other learners， so rarely get the 1：1 ratio needed to ‘acquire’ .
· If YL make errors they are punished （a red pen is PUNISHMENT！）.
· YL rarely get praised.
· A classroom is stressful， the longer you are at school the more stressful it becomes.
· YL learn from a coursebook， often exposed to the symbols （writing） of the new language before they have learnt the symbols in their first language and so have NOTHING to compare it to .
· Boys learn language in a different way to girls！！！ So activities which work with girls do not always work with boys. THERE ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY BOYS AND GIRLS LEARN LANGUAGE！
· YL need to build on the concepts and language they have learnt in their first language and so the additional language needs to cover similar knowledge/topics， eg. home， school， family.
· Learning an additional language follows a similar sequence to learning a first language， eg. single words （for identifying objects）， verbs （to tell someone what you want）， questions （to find out more），adjectives （to add description） etc. YOU CANNOT INSTANTLY COME OUT WITH COMPLETE SENTENCES EVEN IF YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THEM.
There is a logical sequence which is worth remembering： You need to HEAR a word before you can SAY it.
You need to SAY a word before you can READ it.
You need to READ a word before you can WRITE it.
Why？
Without hearing language how can you replicate it？
Without speaking the language how can you recognize and decode/encode the written symbols.
And without recognizing the symbols （writing） how can you use them yourself for your own writing.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher’s need to：
1. Accept that learning a language is NOT done in silence！
2. Accept that unless you want deaf and dumb learners they need to listen to a LOT OF language and to start to speak it.
3. Accept that the symbols of a language （written form） are built from a LOT OF listening and speaking.
4. Accept that there is a natural order to language learning starting with single words and eventually developing into fluent， complex language.
5. Accept that learning language is a process with LOTS OF errors along the way—you DON’T get it right first time！
6. Accept that memorizing grammar does NOT mean you know how to USE the language.
The past 50 years in education have been influenced by three psychologists， although it should be noted they did not all make the link of their theories to education themselves.
* The following terms will be used： young learners （YL）—children aged 6 to 12 years old.
How YL learn—Theorists
Jean Piaget （1896—1980） ，Swiss believed that：
· Children should be given individual attention and it should be realised that they need to be treated differently.
· Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning.
· Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs. （Psychology 4a）
During these periods YL share the following abilities：
1. Pre-operational = think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
2. Concrete operational = start to think logically about concrete events and can work out problems.
3. Formal operational = adolescent or young adult beings to think abstractly and can reason about hypothetical problems.
Implications for teaching：
1. Only teach concepts when the YL is ready.
2. Use a child-centred approach so learning must be active， eg. discovery learning. 3. The order of teaching is linked to the developmental stages， so the curriculum needs to reflect this.
4. The stages of development are biologically set so the rate of learning cannot be speeded up.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. To adapt the lessons to suit the needs of the individual YL.
2. To be aware of the YL stage of deve-lopment by testing.
3. To provide stimulation with a range of tasks/activities.
4. Produce/provide resources.
5. Stretch the YL so they are developing outside what they already know.
6.Use concrete examples when introducing abstract concepts， e.g. ships for floating for density.
Lev Vygotsky（1896—1934）， Russian believed that：
· Each YL learns in their own way and are influenced by their personal preferences.
· That past experiences and prior knowledge of the YL is used to make of new situations or experiences.
· Language is“the tool of thought” and is particularly important to link new ideas to past experiences and prior knowledge.
· That each YL develops by being given tasks which motivate them and are within their “zone of proximal development” ZPD.
Implications for teaching：
1. Allow a YL to construct their meaning even if it means they do not get it right first time.
2. Understand there is a gap between what a YL can do through their own efforts and what they could do with a 'more able other'， which could be another YL or an adult.
3. Schools are “mini-societies” and the role of social interaction in making meaning should be understood.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Ask the YL questions to help lead them to find the answers.
2. Give hints which lead to the answers.
3. Help YL notice errors.
4. Not interfere as the YL works out meaning.
5. Re-direct YL towards something they have overlooked.
Jerome Bruner （1915—current）， an American believes that：
· Initially YL learn by physically interacting with their environment.
· Then YL learn by ‘visual literacy’ and understanding images.
· Finally YL learn by ‘encoding’ or making sense of abstract symbols.
Implications for teaching：
1. Working in a group and through social interaction helps YL to make meaning more quickly.
2. That it’s the Teacher’s role to provide tasks which stretch the YL between what they can do on their own and what they can do with a more able other， this term has been termed ‘scaffolding’. 3. Using a ‘spiral curriculum’ whereby the same topic/concept is re-visited at ever more complex levels.
Teacher’s role includes：
1. Setting up social interaction opportunities in the classroom.
2. Creatingindividualized learning tasks for YL.
3. Can speed up learning by helping the YL move from the iconic to the symbolic level of understanding by improving their language acquisition.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher's need to：
1. Understand the developmental stages of YL and NOT expose them to concepts which are outside their developmental stage of understanding UNLESS the way they introduce the concept is done in a manner which will be comprehensible to them.
2. Let the YL be ‘active’ participants so if they make errors， and they will， accept that it’s part of the learning process BUT the teacher cannot do the learning for the YL， they have to work it out themselves in their own way. So different activities doing similar concepts.
3. Ensure that pairwork and groupwork involves interaction in a meaningful way， just sitting next to someone or around a table is NOT interaction.
4. Understand more or less what the YL in their classes can do on their own and develop activities to stretch them a little more— BIG WARNING HERE， a ‘LITTLE’ more not lots more， learning is incremental building on what you know already.
How YL learn languages
First language
YL are“natural language acquirers” （British Council） they are not programmed for just one language but for EVERY SINGLE LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD！！！！ If you take a Chinese baby from China to the UK for English speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking English. Vice versa you take an English baby and give it to Chinese speaking adults to bring it up， that baby will grow up speaking Chinese. It’s NOT the ethnicity of the adults BUT the language environment.
YL“pick-up” languages， they work out the systems without thinking about them， and by having multiple exposures to the language in different scenarios all day long.
It is not stressful， they are not punished if they get something wrong， in fact they are praised for all the attempts they make！
Language learning is developmental based on previous successes. You know you have been successful because you are understood.
Additional languages
A classroom is a very unnatural place to “pick up” a language. There are many things going against it， eg. · Amount of time spend being exposed to the additional language is limited （compared to their first language）.
· YL have to share the adult with other learners， so rarely get the 1：1 ratio needed to ‘acquire’ .
· If YL make errors they are punished （a red pen is PUNISHMENT！）.
· YL rarely get praised.
· A classroom is stressful， the longer you are at school the more stressful it becomes.
· YL learn from a coursebook， often exposed to the symbols （writing） of the new language before they have learnt the symbols in their first language and so have NOTHING to compare it to .
· Boys learn language in a different way to girls！！！ So activities which work with girls do not always work with boys. THERE ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY BOYS AND GIRLS LEARN LANGUAGE！
· YL need to build on the concepts and language they have learnt in their first language and so the additional language needs to cover similar knowledge/topics， eg. home， school， family.
· Learning an additional language follows a similar sequence to learning a first language， eg. single words （for identifying objects）， verbs （to tell someone what you want）， questions （to find out more），adjectives （to add description） etc. YOU CANNOT INSTANTLY COME OUT WITH COMPLETE SENTENCES EVEN IF YOU HAVE BEEN EXPOSED TO THEM.
There is a logical sequence which is worth remembering：
You need to HEAR a word before you can SAY it.
You need to SAY a word before you can READ it.
You need to READ a word before you can WRITE it.
Why？
Without hearing language how can you replicate it？
Without speaking the language how can you recognize and decode/encode the written symbols.
And without recognizing the symbols （writing） how can you use them yourself for your own writing.
Implications for teaching：
Teacher’s need to：
1. Accept that learning a language is NOT done in silence！
2. Accept that unless you want deaf and dumb learners they need to listen to a LOT OF language and to start to speak it.
3. Accept that the symbols of a language （written form） are built from a LOT OF listening and speaking.
4. Accept that there is a natural order to language learning starting with single words and eventually developing into fluent， complex language.
5. Accept that learning language is a process with LOTS OF errors along the way—you DON’T get it right first time！
6. Accept that memorizing grammar does NOT mean you know how to USE the language.