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Abstract: The most successful schools demonstrate a couple of salient characteristics. The main aim of this study is to examine an agreed set of characteristics with a literature review to see its effectiveness. The paper will start by discussing what the school effectiveness is, followed by the literature review to examine the characteristics of effective schools and effective teaching. The paper concludes by summarizing what makes an effective school with a hope to bring desired improvement to schools and teachers by consulting these characteristics.
Key words: school effectiveness; teacher effectiveness; characteristics
School effectiveness
Three decades of studies all over the world in school effectiveness (Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore and Ouston, 1979) have found that schools indeed make a difference. According to Mortimore et al.’s (1988a) study in School Matters, it was discovered that poor behaved students could make more progress in a more effective school than what they did in a less effective school. Macbeath and Mortimore (2001) claims that to go to an effective school is a crucial determinant of life chances for many individual young people, compared to a less effective school. According to Mortimore (1991), an effective school is one in which students’ progress further than might be expected from consideration of its intake. In other words an effective school adds extra value to its students' outcomes in comparison with other schools serving similar intakes.
Characteristics of Effective Schools
Professional leadership
Highly effective schools have strong and effective school leaders whose primary task is to establish a learning culture throughout the school. A strong leadership is highly influential in developing such a positive school culture (Schein, 1985). The role of professional leadership is not only important in creating positive, innovative and productive learning cultures, but also in facilitating quality teaching and learning (Dinham, 2004).
On the other hand, research has shown that the school leaders who can share leadership responsibilities and involve teachers in decision-making processes will build a sense of unity in their senior management team and amongst their staff, which will contribute positively to school effectiveness (Sammons, 1999). It has also been found that leadership support is critically important in establishing a positive work environment for teachers and thus maintaining a high level of morale (Hill, Rowe and Holmes-Smith, 1996)
Focus on teaching and learning
In effective schools, learning is considered as the central purpose of school and takes priority over other things. The quality of teaching identifies an effective schooling mostly. Successful teachers tend to be efficient and well organized. Their teaching skills, professional characteristics and nice classroom climate created by them contribute significantly to students’ progress (Mcber, 2000). Similarly, Hill et al. (1996) found that teacher effectiveness contributes greatly to students’ educational outcomes. His study also emphasizes that “learning takes place in classrooms through the interaction of students and their teachers”.
Coleman, Hoffer and Kilgore (1981) discovered that the amount of time devoted to learning correlates closely with students’ outcomes and behaviors. Therefore, effective schools usually centralize more time on students’ academic learning time, which will positively result in a good learning outcome. In addition, Sizemore, Brossard and Harrigan (1983) states that students’ learning is enhanced when teachers are aware of individual differences in students’ learning styles by utilizing appropriate strategies.
The learning environment
The psychosocial climate that students work in is very important. The hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954) theorized that a specific series of needs must be met before any student could learn. According to the safety needs, a student who is stressed, who is threatened, or who is discriminated cannot learn.
Similarly, Rutter et al. (1979) found that the school’s physical condition affects the students’ attitudes and behaviors, which will influence student’s achievement in turn. Therefore, successful schools are more likely to be calm places, to be student-centered and have an orderly climate.
Conclusion
The paper focuses on a discussion of the characteristics of effective schools with an extensive literature review. From the discussion above, it can be seen that teacher effectiveness also contributes greatly to students’ educational outcomes apart from the school effectiveness. As teachers, we should provide a comfortable classroom climate to students, which is especially true in the language classrooms. Since learning takes place in classrooms through the interaction of students and their teachers, we should be efficient and well organized. We’d better be aware of individual differences in students’ learning styles by utilizing appropriate strategies.
To summary, this paper briefly provides some measures and goals to be achieved for being aiming at an effective school. Most importantly, it is hoped that desired improvement can be brought to schools and teachers with understanding the factors of school effectiveness.
References
1.Dinham, S. (2004). Leadership for innovation and success in education. Part given at the independent Schools Council of Australia, National Conference, Gold Goast.
2.Hill, P., Rowe, K., and Holmes-Smith, P. (1996). The Victorian Quality Schools Project: A study of school and teacher Effectiveness. Melbourne: Centre for Applied Educational Research, the University of Melbourne.
3.Macbeath, J. & Mortimore, P. (2001). School effectiveness and improvement: the story so far. Improving school effectiveness. Buckingham: Open University Press.
4.Maslow, A.H. (1954) Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row.
5.Mortimore, P., Sammons, A., Stoll, L., Lewis, D. & Ecob, R. (1988a). School Matters: The Junior Years. Wells: Open Books.
6.Mortimore, P.(1991) the nature and findings of school effectiveness research in the primary sector in S Riddell & S Brown School Effectiveness Research: Its Messages for School Improvement, London: HMSO.
7.Rutter, M. Maughan, B. Mortimore, P. & Ouston, J(1979) Fifteen Thousand Hours, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8.Schein, E.(1985). Organizational cultural and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
9.Sizemore, B., Brossard, C. and Harrigan, B(1983).,An abashing anomaly: The high achieving predominantly black elementary school. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
作者介绍：陈杰（1983—），男，陕西西安人，第四军医大学外语教研室教师，助教，硕士学位。研究方向：翻译理论与实践。
孙景（1981-），女，陕西西安人，硕士，第四军医大学外语教研室学教师，研究方向：口语与口译教学。
Key words: school effectiveness; teacher effectiveness; characteristics
School effectiveness
Three decades of studies all over the world in school effectiveness (Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore and Ouston, 1979) have found that schools indeed make a difference. According to Mortimore et al.’s (1988a) study in School Matters, it was discovered that poor behaved students could make more progress in a more effective school than what they did in a less effective school. Macbeath and Mortimore (2001) claims that to go to an effective school is a crucial determinant of life chances for many individual young people, compared to a less effective school. According to Mortimore (1991), an effective school is one in which students’ progress further than might be expected from consideration of its intake. In other words an effective school adds extra value to its students' outcomes in comparison with other schools serving similar intakes.
Characteristics of Effective Schools
Professional leadership
Highly effective schools have strong and effective school leaders whose primary task is to establish a learning culture throughout the school. A strong leadership is highly influential in developing such a positive school culture (Schein, 1985). The role of professional leadership is not only important in creating positive, innovative and productive learning cultures, but also in facilitating quality teaching and learning (Dinham, 2004).
On the other hand, research has shown that the school leaders who can share leadership responsibilities and involve teachers in decision-making processes will build a sense of unity in their senior management team and amongst their staff, which will contribute positively to school effectiveness (Sammons, 1999). It has also been found that leadership support is critically important in establishing a positive work environment for teachers and thus maintaining a high level of morale (Hill, Rowe and Holmes-Smith, 1996)
Focus on teaching and learning
In effective schools, learning is considered as the central purpose of school and takes priority over other things. The quality of teaching identifies an effective schooling mostly. Successful teachers tend to be efficient and well organized. Their teaching skills, professional characteristics and nice classroom climate created by them contribute significantly to students’ progress (Mcber, 2000). Similarly, Hill et al. (1996) found that teacher effectiveness contributes greatly to students’ educational outcomes. His study also emphasizes that “learning takes place in classrooms through the interaction of students and their teachers”.
Coleman, Hoffer and Kilgore (1981) discovered that the amount of time devoted to learning correlates closely with students’ outcomes and behaviors. Therefore, effective schools usually centralize more time on students’ academic learning time, which will positively result in a good learning outcome. In addition, Sizemore, Brossard and Harrigan (1983) states that students’ learning is enhanced when teachers are aware of individual differences in students’ learning styles by utilizing appropriate strategies.
The learning environment
The psychosocial climate that students work in is very important. The hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954) theorized that a specific series of needs must be met before any student could learn. According to the safety needs, a student who is stressed, who is threatened, or who is discriminated cannot learn.
Similarly, Rutter et al. (1979) found that the school’s physical condition affects the students’ attitudes and behaviors, which will influence student’s achievement in turn. Therefore, successful schools are more likely to be calm places, to be student-centered and have an orderly climate.
Conclusion
The paper focuses on a discussion of the characteristics of effective schools with an extensive literature review. From the discussion above, it can be seen that teacher effectiveness also contributes greatly to students’ educational outcomes apart from the school effectiveness. As teachers, we should provide a comfortable classroom climate to students, which is especially true in the language classrooms. Since learning takes place in classrooms through the interaction of students and their teachers, we should be efficient and well organized. We’d better be aware of individual differences in students’ learning styles by utilizing appropriate strategies.
To summary, this paper briefly provides some measures and goals to be achieved for being aiming at an effective school. Most importantly, it is hoped that desired improvement can be brought to schools and teachers with understanding the factors of school effectiveness.
References
1.Dinham, S. (2004). Leadership for innovation and success in education. Part given at the independent Schools Council of Australia, National Conference, Gold Goast.
2.Hill, P., Rowe, K., and Holmes-Smith, P. (1996). The Victorian Quality Schools Project: A study of school and teacher Effectiveness. Melbourne: Centre for Applied Educational Research, the University of Melbourne.
3.Macbeath, J. & Mortimore, P. (2001). School effectiveness and improvement: the story so far. Improving school effectiveness. Buckingham: Open University Press.
4.Maslow, A.H. (1954) Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper & Row.
5.Mortimore, P., Sammons, A., Stoll, L., Lewis, D. & Ecob, R. (1988a). School Matters: The Junior Years. Wells: Open Books.
6.Mortimore, P.(1991) the nature and findings of school effectiveness research in the primary sector in S Riddell & S Brown School Effectiveness Research: Its Messages for School Improvement, London: HMSO.
7.Rutter, M. Maughan, B. Mortimore, P. & Ouston, J(1979) Fifteen Thousand Hours, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8.Schein, E.(1985). Organizational cultural and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
9.Sizemore, B., Brossard, C. and Harrigan, B(1983).,An abashing anomaly: The high achieving predominantly black elementary school. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
作者介绍：陈杰（1983—），男，陕西西安人，第四军医大学外语教研室教师，助教，硕士学位。研究方向：翻译理论与实践。
孙景（1981-），女，陕西西安人，硕士，第四军医大学外语教研室学教师，研究方向：口语与口译教学。