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The time is 264 BC; the place, Rome; and we are at the funeral of Brutus Pera, a 1)distinguished 2)aristocrat.
It was the 3)norm to have slaves at that time, and the family of the 4)deceased have arranged for the slaves to fight to the death in his honor. This is believed to be the first time this sort of 5)spectacle had taken place.
Many spectators attended, and the birth of the 6)gladiatorial games was born.
Bit by bit, the fights became more important then the funeral itself. It wasn’t long before a fight was arranged just for the contest itself. As are the boxing matches of today, the Roman games were organized by wealthy 7)entrepreneurs as a means to 8)boost their 9)influence and purse.
It is still possible to see advertisements painted on the walls of houses and tombs in Pompeii注1 10)depicting 11)forthcoming fights.
Some gladiators started to build themselves a 12)reputation as great fighters and become well known. And as it is today, the bigger the names the more spectators attended.
Gladiators were owned by their agents, and were booked out to 13)sponsors of the fights. It was important to the agent that their gladiator was strong and healthy, so they were given a 14)vegan diet, as it was considered to be the best way to health and fitness.
The big difference between the fights of today and the gladiatorial fights of Rome was that they would often fight to the death. Slaves from all over the Roman Empire were sent to be trained as gladiators.
Not all fights ended in death. If a trainer had a good fighter, he would be often “booked” to fight in a game by a sponsor, and it was up to the sponsor if that fighter was to be put to the sword.
Not all gladiators were slaves; some were, amazingly, volunteers. The “gladiator” had begun to build up such a reputation as a 15)cult 16)figure that it was almost an honor to be one. Some of the better gladiators were looked upon as pop stars and had many fans who would follow them to all their fights. This could be one of the reasons for volunteering: they also received a large sum of money when they first signed up.
Upon winning a contest, gladiators were awarded a 17)wreath. Some 18)paraded their wreaths, like a prize boxer of today holds up the belt they had won.
Life and Death of a Gladiator
The Roman Coliseum注2 held over 50,000 spectators. Here, gladiators fought 19)ferocious battles.
Gladiators were slaves who would participate in about 20 fights per day, each lasting ten minutes. The fights were brutal and often to the death. The crowds would cheer to see blood and urged the fighters to kill their 20)opponents.
21)Military historian Marcus Junkelmann is an expert about gladiatorial combat.
Junkelmann: The normal impression that gladiator combat in the 22)arena was a…a mess, was a…a 23)chaotic 24)melee of dozens of fighters and all…all against all and without rules, is completely wrong.
25)Contrary to popular depictions, a 26)referee would always be close at hand, and only two gladiators would fight at a time. The Romans also had specific 27)formulas for 28)pairing types of gladiators.
Gladiators didn’t always fight to the death. Sometimes the fighters would survive horrific wounds and have to publicly accept their 29)defeat. Many combats ended in a 30)draw, both gladiators walking, wounded, from the arena. But, if one man could no longer keep up with the fight…
Junkelmann: …then he dropped his shield and raised his left hand with fingers 31)stretched out. In that moment, his 32)adversary was no longer allowed to attack him.
The life or death of the gladiator was put in the hands of the spectators. If the crowd felt the loser had fought well and hard, they would urge his 33)pardon.
Junkelmann: People made a fist with the thumb pressed on and cried “Visum.” Then he was beaten but alive and could leave.
But if the crowd judged a gladiator to be a 34)coward, or he was too badly injured to recover, this would be his end.
Junkelmann: He had to accept this as a death sentence, like an 35)execution. He had to kneel down and, without showing any emotion, awaited the death blow by his adversary, who 36)stabbed him, normally, into the throat.
You could see how men, like the gladiators, 37)confronted death with bravery and survived when they were good fighters, and even when they had to be killed, they 38)demonstrated 39)contempt of death.
时间——公元前264年；地点——罗马；我们身处显赫贵族布鲁特斯•贝拉的葬礼。
蓄奴在当时是一种社会风尚。遗属安排了奴隶角斗至死以纪念死者。人们相信这是此种表演的首次上演。
许多观众到来观看，角斗比赛由此诞生。
渐渐地，角斗变得比葬礼本身更加重要，不久以后就演变成单纯为了竞赛而进行角斗。和今天的拳击比赛一样，罗马的角斗比赛也是由富商组织，被视为一种名利双收的手段。
今天仍然可以在庞贝城的房屋墙壁和坟墓上看到角斗比赛广告，宣传即将进行的赛事。
有些角斗士开始渐渐树立了自己的声誉，成为家喻户晓的名人。就像今天一样，斗士名气越大，就能吸引越多观众。
角斗士归代理人所有，并且接受比赛赞助商的“预定”。对代理人来说，角斗士的强壮和健康至关重要，因此会给他们提供素食餐单——这被认为是保持健康和体型的最佳方法。
今天的格斗比赛与昔日罗马的角斗比赛之间有一个很大的区别，那就是角斗士们往往会战斗至死。来自罗马帝国各地的奴隶被送来接受训练，成为角斗士。
并非所有的比赛都以死亡告终。如果训练员拥有一名优秀的角斗士，那名角斗士往往会被赞助商“预订”参加角斗。是否要处死角斗士则由赞助商决定。
并非所有角斗士都是奴隶，令人惊讶的是，其中有一些是自愿参赛的。“角斗士”逐渐建立起偶像崇拜般的巨大声誉，成为一名角斗士几乎相当于一种荣誉。有些比较优秀的角斗士会被视为明星，很多追随者会跟随他们出席每一场比赛。以下也可能是人们自愿成为角斗士的理由之一：在最初签约时，他们能得到一大笔钱。
赢得一场比赛后，角斗士会被授予花圈。有些角斗士会戴着花环巡游，就像如今那些获胜的拳击手高高举起他们赢得的腰带绕场展示一样。
角斗士的生与死
罗马竞技场能容纳超过五万名观众。角斗士们就在这里进行残酷的厮杀。
角斗士是奴隶，每天要参加近20场角斗，每场10分钟。比赛是残酷的，往往以死亡告终。人群会为见血而欢呼，并催促比赛者杀死他们的对手。
军事历史学家马库斯•容克尔曼是一位角斗士比赛专家。
容克尔曼：人们通常的印象是角斗士在竞技场中的战斗十分混乱，几十个角斗士打成一团，每个人互相为敌，大家一起混战，毫无规则可言。其实这种印象是完全错误的。
与广为流传的描述相反，裁判总是近在咫尺，而且每次比赛只有两名角斗士参加。在各种角斗士的类型配对上，罗马人也有具体的规则。
角斗士并不总是拼到你死我活。有时，角斗士会在受到可怕的重创之后幸存下来，并公开承认自己的失败。许多角斗会以平局告终，两名角斗士都负伤走下竞技场。但是，如果其中一个人无法继续比赛……
容克尔曼：……他就会丢下自己的盾牌，举起左手，伸出五指。此时，他的对手就不可以再攻击他了。
角斗士的生死掌握在观众手中。如果人们觉得失败者已经尽力并且打斗得很精彩，他们就会为他争取赦免。
容克尔曼：人们会压住拇指攥紧拳头，呼喊“Visum”。那样角斗士虽然被打败，但还可以活着离开。
但如果人们认为这个角斗士是胆小鬼，或者他受伤太重难以恢复，那么这将成为他生命的终点。
容克尔曼：他只能接受这个死刑般的裁决，就像行刑一样。他只能跪下，不表现出任何情绪，等待对手对自己施以致命的一击——对手会刺死他，通常是一剑封喉。
你可以看到男人——比如角斗士——是如何勇敢地直面死亡。如果他们是优秀的斗士，就能存活下来；即使当他们不得不被杀的时候，他们对死亡也会表现出何等的蔑视。
注1：庞贝城为古罗马城市之一，建于那波利湾的岸边，以纪念古罗马政治及军事家格奈乌斯•庞培。庞培于公元79年8月24日被维苏威火山爆发时的火山灰覆盖。
注2：罗马竞技场，又称罗马斗兽场，是古罗马时期最大的圆形角斗场，建于公元72年至82年间，现仅存遗迹位于意大利罗马市的中心。
（以下分开排版）
小链接：奥地利首都东部发现古罗马时代角斗士学校遗迹
奥地利考古学家表示，他们运用激光造影，在首都维也纳东边的卡农顿（Carnuntum）遗址发现了一座古罗马时代角斗士学校遗迹，保存状态良好，占地广阔，包括一处角斗士训练场，还有大型浴场。
这所角斗士学校曾是一座古罗马城市的一部分，该城市在1700年前繁荣一时，约有5万人口，是古罗马帝国的重要军事和贸易前哨站，为帝国通往中欧和北欧的交通要冲。
考古学家尚未对该遗迹进行开挖，但镭射造影技术显示，这座角斗士学校四周被厚墙环绕，内有四十间角斗士寝室。学校墙外估计是那些在训练中被杀死的角斗士的埋身之处。该角斗士学校遗迹还有一个特色——训练场的正中间立有一根竹杆，显然是充当角斗士训练时的假想敌。
It was the 3)norm to have slaves at that time, and the family of the 4)deceased have arranged for the slaves to fight to the death in his honor. This is believed to be the first time this sort of 5)spectacle had taken place.
Many spectators attended, and the birth of the 6)gladiatorial games was born.
Bit by bit, the fights became more important then the funeral itself. It wasn’t long before a fight was arranged just for the contest itself. As are the boxing matches of today, the Roman games were organized by wealthy 7)entrepreneurs as a means to 8)boost their 9)influence and purse.
It is still possible to see advertisements painted on the walls of houses and tombs in Pompeii注1 10)depicting 11)forthcoming fights.
Some gladiators started to build themselves a 12)reputation as great fighters and become well known. And as it is today, the bigger the names the more spectators attended.
Gladiators were owned by their agents, and were booked out to 13)sponsors of the fights. It was important to the agent that their gladiator was strong and healthy, so they were given a 14)vegan diet, as it was considered to be the best way to health and fitness.
The big difference between the fights of today and the gladiatorial fights of Rome was that they would often fight to the death. Slaves from all over the Roman Empire were sent to be trained as gladiators.
Not all fights ended in death. If a trainer had a good fighter, he would be often “booked” to fight in a game by a sponsor, and it was up to the sponsor if that fighter was to be put to the sword.
Not all gladiators were slaves; some were, amazingly, volunteers. The “gladiator” had begun to build up such a reputation as a 15)cult 16)figure that it was almost an honor to be one. Some of the better gladiators were looked upon as pop stars and had many fans who would follow them to all their fights. This could be one of the reasons for volunteering: they also received a large sum of money when they first signed up.
Upon winning a contest, gladiators were awarded a 17)wreath. Some 18)paraded their wreaths, like a prize boxer of today holds up the belt they had won.
Life and Death of a Gladiator
The Roman Coliseum注2 held over 50,000 spectators. Here, gladiators fought 19)ferocious battles.
Gladiators were slaves who would participate in about 20 fights per day, each lasting ten minutes. The fights were brutal and often to the death. The crowds would cheer to see blood and urged the fighters to kill their 20)opponents.
21)Military historian Marcus Junkelmann is an expert about gladiatorial combat.
Junkelmann: The normal impression that gladiator combat in the 22)arena was a…a mess, was a…a 23)chaotic 24)melee of dozens of fighters and all…all against all and without rules, is completely wrong.
25)Contrary to popular depictions, a 26)referee would always be close at hand, and only two gladiators would fight at a time. The Romans also had specific 27)formulas for 28)pairing types of gladiators.
Gladiators didn’t always fight to the death. Sometimes the fighters would survive horrific wounds and have to publicly accept their 29)defeat. Many combats ended in a 30)draw, both gladiators walking, wounded, from the arena. But, if one man could no longer keep up with the fight…
Junkelmann: …then he dropped his shield and raised his left hand with fingers 31)stretched out. In that moment, his 32)adversary was no longer allowed to attack him.
The life or death of the gladiator was put in the hands of the spectators. If the crowd felt the loser had fought well and hard, they would urge his 33)pardon.
Junkelmann: People made a fist with the thumb pressed on and cried “Visum.” Then he was beaten but alive and could leave.
But if the crowd judged a gladiator to be a 34)coward, or he was too badly injured to recover, this would be his end.
Junkelmann: He had to accept this as a death sentence, like an 35)execution. He had to kneel down and, without showing any emotion, awaited the death blow by his adversary, who 36)stabbed him, normally, into the throat.
You could see how men, like the gladiators, 37)confronted death with bravery and survived when they were good fighters, and even when they had to be killed, they 38)demonstrated 39)contempt of death.
时间——公元前264年；地点——罗马；我们身处显赫贵族布鲁特斯•贝拉的葬礼。
蓄奴在当时是一种社会风尚。遗属安排了奴隶角斗至死以纪念死者。人们相信这是此种表演的首次上演。
许多观众到来观看，角斗比赛由此诞生。
渐渐地，角斗变得比葬礼本身更加重要，不久以后就演变成单纯为了竞赛而进行角斗。和今天的拳击比赛一样，罗马的角斗比赛也是由富商组织，被视为一种名利双收的手段。
今天仍然可以在庞贝城的房屋墙壁和坟墓上看到角斗比赛广告，宣传即将进行的赛事。
有些角斗士开始渐渐树立了自己的声誉，成为家喻户晓的名人。就像今天一样，斗士名气越大，就能吸引越多观众。
角斗士归代理人所有，并且接受比赛赞助商的“预定”。对代理人来说，角斗士的强壮和健康至关重要，因此会给他们提供素食餐单——这被认为是保持健康和体型的最佳方法。
今天的格斗比赛与昔日罗马的角斗比赛之间有一个很大的区别，那就是角斗士们往往会战斗至死。来自罗马帝国各地的奴隶被送来接受训练，成为角斗士。
并非所有的比赛都以死亡告终。如果训练员拥有一名优秀的角斗士，那名角斗士往往会被赞助商“预订”参加角斗。是否要处死角斗士则由赞助商决定。
并非所有角斗士都是奴隶，令人惊讶的是，其中有一些是自愿参赛的。“角斗士”逐渐建立起偶像崇拜般的巨大声誉，成为一名角斗士几乎相当于一种荣誉。有些比较优秀的角斗士会被视为明星，很多追随者会跟随他们出席每一场比赛。以下也可能是人们自愿成为角斗士的理由之一：在最初签约时，他们能得到一大笔钱。
赢得一场比赛后，角斗士会被授予花圈。有些角斗士会戴着花环巡游，就像如今那些获胜的拳击手高高举起他们赢得的腰带绕场展示一样。
角斗士的生与死
罗马竞技场能容纳超过五万名观众。角斗士们就在这里进行残酷的厮杀。
角斗士是奴隶，每天要参加近20场角斗，每场10分钟。比赛是残酷的，往往以死亡告终。人群会为见血而欢呼，并催促比赛者杀死他们的对手。
军事历史学家马库斯•容克尔曼是一位角斗士比赛专家。
容克尔曼：人们通常的印象是角斗士在竞技场中的战斗十分混乱，几十个角斗士打成一团，每个人互相为敌，大家一起混战，毫无规则可言。其实这种印象是完全错误的。
与广为流传的描述相反，裁判总是近在咫尺，而且每次比赛只有两名角斗士参加。在各种角斗士的类型配对上，罗马人也有具体的规则。
角斗士并不总是拼到你死我活。有时，角斗士会在受到可怕的重创之后幸存下来，并公开承认自己的失败。许多角斗会以平局告终，两名角斗士都负伤走下竞技场。但是，如果其中一个人无法继续比赛……
容克尔曼：……他就会丢下自己的盾牌，举起左手，伸出五指。此时，他的对手就不可以再攻击他了。
角斗士的生死掌握在观众手中。如果人们觉得失败者已经尽力并且打斗得很精彩，他们就会为他争取赦免。
容克尔曼：人们会压住拇指攥紧拳头，呼喊“Visum”。那样角斗士虽然被打败，但还可以活着离开。
但如果人们认为这个角斗士是胆小鬼，或者他受伤太重难以恢复，那么这将成为他生命的终点。
容克尔曼：他只能接受这个死刑般的裁决，就像行刑一样。他只能跪下，不表现出任何情绪，等待对手对自己施以致命的一击——对手会刺死他，通常是一剑封喉。
你可以看到男人——比如角斗士——是如何勇敢地直面死亡。如果他们是优秀的斗士，就能存活下来；即使当他们不得不被杀的时候，他们对死亡也会表现出何等的蔑视。
注1：庞贝城为古罗马城市之一，建于那波利湾的岸边，以纪念古罗马政治及军事家格奈乌斯•庞培。庞培于公元79年8月24日被维苏威火山爆发时的火山灰覆盖。
注2：罗马竞技场，又称罗马斗兽场，是古罗马时期最大的圆形角斗场，建于公元72年至82年间，现仅存遗迹位于意大利罗马市的中心。
（以下分开排版）
小链接：奥地利首都东部发现古罗马时代角斗士学校遗迹
奥地利考古学家表示，他们运用激光造影，在首都维也纳东边的卡农顿（Carnuntum）遗址发现了一座古罗马时代角斗士学校遗迹，保存状态良好，占地广阔，包括一处角斗士训练场，还有大型浴场。
这所角斗士学校曾是一座古罗马城市的一部分，该城市在1700年前繁荣一时，约有5万人口，是古罗马帝国的重要军事和贸易前哨站，为帝国通往中欧和北欧的交通要冲。
考古学家尚未对该遗迹进行开挖，但镭射造影技术显示，这座角斗士学校四周被厚墙环绕，内有四十间角斗士寝室。学校墙外估计是那些在训练中被杀死的角斗士的埋身之处。该角斗士学校遗迹还有一个特色——训练场的正中间立有一根竹杆，显然是充当角斗士训练时的假想敌。