Mammalian carboxylesterases (CEs) are key enzymes from the serine hydrolase superfamily.In the human body,two predominant carboxylesterases (CES1 and CES2) have been identified and extensively studied over the past decade.These two enzymes play crucial roles in the metabolism of a wide variety of endogenous esters,ester-containing drugs and environmental toxicants.The key roles of CES in both human health and xenobiotic metabolism arouse great interest in the discovery of potent CES modulators to regulate endobiotic metabolism or to improve the efficacy of ester drugs.This review covers the structural and catalytic features of CES,tissue distributions,biological functions,genetic polymorphisms,substrate specificities and inhibitor properties of CES1 and CES2,as well as the significance and recent progress on the discovery of CES modulators.The information presented here will help pharmacologists explore the relevance of CES to human diseases or to assign the contribution of certain CES in xenobiotic metabolism.It will also facilitate medicinal chemistry efforts to design prodrugs activated by a given CES isoform,or to develop potent and selective modulators of CES for potential biomedical applications.