One fundamental principle of biology is interaction,understanding of which forms the basis for the development of novel therapeutic and preventive strategies with proven clinical efficacy(Phase Ⅲ)and population effectiveness(Phase Ⅳ and implementation).The existing research and implementation processes for both drug therapy and new diagnostic tools are very fragmented and grossly insufficient.First,the drug development process takes too long(10-15 years/drug)and cost too much(~$1 billion/drug)with high failure rates(~80%)even for targets and compounds that survive through Phases Ⅱ development.Second,the lack of assessment for interactions among genetic factors and therapeutic agents in almost all human studies may be a rate-limiting step for success(or lead to post-marketing failure due to as yet unknown off-target detrimental effect).Third,current structure does not encourage basic scientists to work closely with clinical and population scientists.Last and most importantly,insufficient measurement of covariates often precludes from confidently predicting intermediate or long-term effects of various agents.