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一、篇章结构
获取信息的最有效方法之一就是了解文章的结构，以便更加准确、快速地定位我们要找的信息。而一篇文章，无论由多少段组成，其结构一般都是由引言 (introduction)、正文 (body)和结尾 (conclusion) 三大部分组成。当然，每一部分都由一个主题句 (topic sentence) 而展开的。
1．引言的呈现
1) 主题句法：直接点出主题或亮出作者对问题的看法。
Many facts suggest that children are overweight and the situation is getting worse, according to the doctors. I feel there are a number of reasons for this.
2) 引语法：引用名言或常用的习语、谚语等作为文章的开头。
“The proper study of mankind is man.” said Alexander Pope. Most psychologists have carried this idea further than Pope would have imaged.
3) 问题法：用一个问题来引出文章的主题。
Have you ever noticed the color of the water in a river or stream after a heavy rainfall? What do you think caused this change in color? It is soil that has been washed into the river from the riverbank or from the nearby fields.
4) 对立法：先引出人们对某一问题的不同看法， 然后提出作者自己的看法。
I hear many parents complaining that their teenage children are rebelling. I wish it were so. At your age you ought to be growing away from your parents. You should be learning to stand on your own two feet. But you should take a good look at the present rebellion. It seems that teenagers are all taking the same way of showing that they disagree with their parents. Instead of striking out boldly on their own, most of them are clutching at one anothers hands for reassurance.
5) 数据法：用精确的数据来引出问题，引起人们注意。
In 2002, scientists at the University of Athens in Greece conducted a survey of over 35,000 people in 10 countries around the world, including China, Belgium and South Africa. Of the people that responded to the survey, 24 percent said that they did not sleep well, and based on their responses, 31.6 percent were diagnosed with insomnia and another 17.5 percent were diagnosed with borderline insomnia. In addition, 30.7 percent of survey respondents reported visiting a doctor for help.
2．正文的结构
正文通常由一段或几段组成，主要是从不同侧面对文章的主题展开讨论，各段所阐述或讨论的主题必须与文章的主题一致。
3．结尾的呈现
结尾段用于概括全文的内容。常用结尾段的写法有：
1) 结论性结尾：照应开头的引言，进一步强调文章的中心思想或作者的观点。
2) 建议性结尾：就文章中讨论的问题提出解决的方法或建议。
3) 引语性结尾：引用名人名言、谚语来总结全文，起到激励和教育的作用。
4) 反问式结尾：以问句的形式表明肯定的意义，具有明显的强调作用，以引起读者思考。
5) 转折性结尾：指出所讨论问题的消极影响或有可能产生的不良后果。
以下面一段文章为例：
(1) Meeting people from another culture can be difficult. From the beginning, people may send the wrong signal (信号). Or they may pay no attention to signals from another person who is trying to develop a relationship.
(2) Different cultures emphasize (强调) the importance of relationship building to a greater or lesser degree. For example, business in some countries is not possible until there is a relationship of trust. Even with people at work, it is necessary to spend a lot of time in “small talk”, usually over a glass of tea, before they do any job. In many European countries — like the UK or France — people find it easier to build up a lasting working relationship at restaurants or cafes rather than at the office.
(3) Talk and silence may also be different in some cultures. I once made a speech in Thailand. I had expected my speech to be a success and start a lively discussion instead, there was an uncomfortable silence. The people present just stared at me and smiled. After getting to know their ways better, I realized that they thought I was talking too much. In my own culture, we express meaning mainly through words, but people there sometimes feel too many words are unnecessary.
(4) Even within Northern Europe, cultural differences can cause serious problems. Certainly, English and German cultures share similar values; however, Germans prefer to get down to business more quickly. We think that they are rude. In fact, this is just because one culture starts discussions and makes decisions more quickly.
People from different parts of the world have different values, and sometimes these values are quite against each other. However, if we can understand them better, a multicultural environment (多元文化环境) will offer a wonderful chance for us to learn from each other.
这篇文章的第一节是引言部分，采用了主题句法直接引入正文，(1) 句为引言部分的主题句；正文由三个段落组成，(2) — (4) 句分别为每一段落的主题句;文章的最后一节是结尾段，采用了结论性结尾和建议性结尾的方法来概括全文的内容。
二、语言文体
世界上有数以亿计的人使用英语，不同地区的人在不同的场合使用的英语是不同的。大体上来说，学英语时要注意以下两个方面的内容：
(1) 区分书面语和口语：
英语中的书面语使用要求比较规范，结构比较严谨；而口语的句式则相对比较简短，结构比较松散，有时候中间还夹有各种插入语，如 do you think, do you believe,有时一句话只说了半句就又转入另一句话，而且省略句比较多。有些时候还会夹杂些俚语方言，这些因素都可能造成理解上的障碍。此外口语使用者在自然对话中多使用“and”和“but”等词来连接简单句，或者使用很多单一动词结构，而很少使用复杂的并列句或从句结构。而且，在一般的日常谈话中，由于说话者和听话者双方的高度参与，说话者常使用直接引语和通俗口语语言。与口语相反，书面语中频繁出现的是主语、谓语、定语、状语、表语等的复杂的从句结构。除此之外，书面语使用者常运用被动语态、过去完成时、间接引语，状语从句以及倒装句等手段来强调时间、空间上的跨度和问题的重要性。通过阅读一些科普性的书籍，(如历史、地理、政治、经济)，我们就会发现书中一般都用书面语，不难体会到它的特点。反过来当我们阅读小说或是欣赏英美电影作品时，就会看出英语口语的特点。例如：
1) If you come early, you will see him. (written)
2) Come early and you will see him.(spoken)
3) Under no circumstances must the door be left unlocked.(written)
4) The door must be left unlocked under no circumstances.(spoken)
以上四句话中，第一句和第三句比较正式，主要用在书面语中。而第二句和第四句是比较随便的说法，很可能出现在日常生活的谈话中，是非正式用语，属于口语范畴。
(2) 辨别正式和非正式场合的英语：
正式场合用的英语，英语称formal English，如报告、商业书信、法律法规等中用的语言。比较正式、规范，有时甚至比较文气。非正式场合中使用的英语，指的是句式比较随便的英语，一般用于口头的谈话中。英语中称informal English。例如：
1) The worlds population needs to be urgently dealt with. (informal)
2) The worlds population needs to be urgently addressed. (formal)
3) Such measures are helping coal to keep up its status as a major supplier of the worlds energy needs. (informal)
4) Such measures are helping coal to maintain its status as a major supplier of the worlds energy needs. (formal)
其它短语动词也有这种情况，例如：
Informal Formal
check up on investigate
put up with tolerate
catch on understand
make up for compensate
go up contract
另外，有很多常用的短语也都属于informal English，例如：
Formal Informal
fear that ... be afraid that ...
occasionally now and then
look to take care of
the chief things requisite for be necessary for
另外正式的和非正式的英语语言在结构上也有差别，例如：
He is a person on whom we can rely. (formal)
He is a person (whom) we can rely on. (informal)
It is important that we should do it. (formal)
It is important for us to do it. (informal)
一般来说，informal language是指口语体的语言，formal language大多有些文气，用于书面语中。但现在书面语言也在变化，常会见到一些文章中存在口语的语言，这样文体便显得比较通俗易懂。
最后我们总结一下以上这几种不同类型的语言：
Written English 和 Formal English 经常用于以下场合：学术课本，大学论文，散文，商业信函，合同和报告等；Informal written English 常用在给朋友或家人写的书信，电子邮件和短信息中；Formal spoken English 则多用于正式的演讲或者在和陌生人交谈的时候；Informal spoken English 最常见于和亲人或朋友的谈话中。
（作者：陈兆丽，江苏省灌南高级中学）
获取信息的最有效方法之一就是了解文章的结构，以便更加准确、快速地定位我们要找的信息。而一篇文章，无论由多少段组成，其结构一般都是由引言 (introduction)、正文 (body)和结尾 (conclusion) 三大部分组成。当然，每一部分都由一个主题句 (topic sentence) 而展开的。
1．引言的呈现
1) 主题句法：直接点出主题或亮出作者对问题的看法。
Many facts suggest that children are overweight and the situation is getting worse, according to the doctors. I feel there are a number of reasons for this.
2) 引语法：引用名言或常用的习语、谚语等作为文章的开头。
“The proper study of mankind is man.” said Alexander Pope. Most psychologists have carried this idea further than Pope would have imaged.
3) 问题法：用一个问题来引出文章的主题。
Have you ever noticed the color of the water in a river or stream after a heavy rainfall? What do you think caused this change in color? It is soil that has been washed into the river from the riverbank or from the nearby fields.
4) 对立法：先引出人们对某一问题的不同看法， 然后提出作者自己的看法。
I hear many parents complaining that their teenage children are rebelling. I wish it were so. At your age you ought to be growing away from your parents. You should be learning to stand on your own two feet. But you should take a good look at the present rebellion. It seems that teenagers are all taking the same way of showing that they disagree with their parents. Instead of striking out boldly on their own, most of them are clutching at one anothers hands for reassurance.
5) 数据法：用精确的数据来引出问题，引起人们注意。
In 2002, scientists at the University of Athens in Greece conducted a survey of over 35,000 people in 10 countries around the world, including China, Belgium and South Africa. Of the people that responded to the survey, 24 percent said that they did not sleep well, and based on their responses, 31.6 percent were diagnosed with insomnia and another 17.5 percent were diagnosed with borderline insomnia. In addition, 30.7 percent of survey respondents reported visiting a doctor for help.
2．正文的结构
正文通常由一段或几段组成，主要是从不同侧面对文章的主题展开讨论，各段所阐述或讨论的主题必须与文章的主题一致。
3．结尾的呈现
结尾段用于概括全文的内容。常用结尾段的写法有：
1) 结论性结尾：照应开头的引言，进一步强调文章的中心思想或作者的观点。
2) 建议性结尾：就文章中讨论的问题提出解决的方法或建议。
3) 引语性结尾：引用名人名言、谚语来总结全文，起到激励和教育的作用。
4) 反问式结尾：以问句的形式表明肯定的意义，具有明显的强调作用，以引起读者思考。
5) 转折性结尾：指出所讨论问题的消极影响或有可能产生的不良后果。
以下面一段文章为例：
(1) Meeting people from another culture can be difficult. From the beginning, people may send the wrong signal (信号). Or they may pay no attention to signals from another person who is trying to develop a relationship.
(2) Different cultures emphasize (强调) the importance of relationship building to a greater or lesser degree. For example, business in some countries is not possible until there is a relationship of trust. Even with people at work, it is necessary to spend a lot of time in “small talk”, usually over a glass of tea, before they do any job. In many European countries — like the UK or France — people find it easier to build up a lasting working relationship at restaurants or cafes rather than at the office.
(3) Talk and silence may also be different in some cultures. I once made a speech in Thailand. I had expected my speech to be a success and start a lively discussion instead, there was an uncomfortable silence. The people present just stared at me and smiled. After getting to know their ways better, I realized that they thought I was talking too much. In my own culture, we express meaning mainly through words, but people there sometimes feel too many words are unnecessary.
(4) Even within Northern Europe, cultural differences can cause serious problems. Certainly, English and German cultures share similar values; however, Germans prefer to get down to business more quickly. We think that they are rude. In fact, this is just because one culture starts discussions and makes decisions more quickly.
People from different parts of the world have different values, and sometimes these values are quite against each other. However, if we can understand them better, a multicultural environment (多元文化环境) will offer a wonderful chance for us to learn from each other.
这篇文章的第一节是引言部分，采用了主题句法直接引入正文，(1) 句为引言部分的主题句；正文由三个段落组成，(2) — (4) 句分别为每一段落的主题句;文章的最后一节是结尾段，采用了结论性结尾和建议性结尾的方法来概括全文的内容。
二、语言文体
世界上有数以亿计的人使用英语，不同地区的人在不同的场合使用的英语是不同的。大体上来说，学英语时要注意以下两个方面的内容：
(1) 区分书面语和口语：
英语中的书面语使用要求比较规范，结构比较严谨；而口语的句式则相对比较简短，结构比较松散，有时候中间还夹有各种插入语，如 do you think, do you believe,有时一句话只说了半句就又转入另一句话，而且省略句比较多。有些时候还会夹杂些俚语方言，这些因素都可能造成理解上的障碍。此外口语使用者在自然对话中多使用“and”和“but”等词来连接简单句，或者使用很多单一动词结构，而很少使用复杂的并列句或从句结构。而且，在一般的日常谈话中，由于说话者和听话者双方的高度参与，说话者常使用直接引语和通俗口语语言。与口语相反，书面语中频繁出现的是主语、谓语、定语、状语、表语等的复杂的从句结构。除此之外，书面语使用者常运用被动语态、过去完成时、间接引语，状语从句以及倒装句等手段来强调时间、空间上的跨度和问题的重要性。通过阅读一些科普性的书籍，(如历史、地理、政治、经济)，我们就会发现书中一般都用书面语，不难体会到它的特点。反过来当我们阅读小说或是欣赏英美电影作品时，就会看出英语口语的特点。例如：
1) If you come early, you will see him. (written)
2) Come early and you will see him.(spoken)
3) Under no circumstances must the door be left unlocked.(written)
4) The door must be left unlocked under no circumstances.(spoken)
以上四句话中，第一句和第三句比较正式，主要用在书面语中。而第二句和第四句是比较随便的说法，很可能出现在日常生活的谈话中，是非正式用语，属于口语范畴。
(2) 辨别正式和非正式场合的英语：
正式场合用的英语，英语称formal English，如报告、商业书信、法律法规等中用的语言。比较正式、规范，有时甚至比较文气。非正式场合中使用的英语，指的是句式比较随便的英语，一般用于口头的谈话中。英语中称informal English。例如：
1) The worlds population needs to be urgently dealt with. (informal)
2) The worlds population needs to be urgently addressed. (formal)
3) Such measures are helping coal to keep up its status as a major supplier of the worlds energy needs. (informal)
4) Such measures are helping coal to maintain its status as a major supplier of the worlds energy needs. (formal)
其它短语动词也有这种情况，例如：
Informal Formal
check up on investigate
put up with tolerate
catch on understand
make up for compensate
go up contract
另外，有很多常用的短语也都属于informal English，例如：
Formal Informal
fear that ... be afraid that ...
occasionally now and then
look to take care of
the chief things requisite for be necessary for
另外正式的和非正式的英语语言在结构上也有差别，例如：
He is a person on whom we can rely. (formal)
He is a person (whom) we can rely on. (informal)
It is important that we should do it. (formal)
It is important for us to do it. (informal)
一般来说，informal language是指口语体的语言，formal language大多有些文气，用于书面语中。但现在书面语言也在变化，常会见到一些文章中存在口语的语言，这样文体便显得比较通俗易懂。
最后我们总结一下以上这几种不同类型的语言：
Written English 和 Formal English 经常用于以下场合：学术课本，大学论文，散文，商业信函，合同和报告等；Informal written English 常用在给朋友或家人写的书信，电子邮件和短信息中；Formal spoken English 则多用于正式的演讲或者在和陌生人交谈的时候；Informal spoken English 最常见于和亲人或朋友的谈话中。
（作者：陈兆丽，江苏省灌南高级中学）