As Moore’s law based device scaling and accompanying performance scaling trends are slowing down,there is increasing interest in new technologies and computational models for fast and more energy-efficient information processing.Meanwhile,there is growing evidence that,with respect to traditional Boolean circuits and von Neumann processors,it will be challenging for beyond-CMOS devices to compete with the CMOS technology.Exploiting unique characteristics of emerging devices,especially in the context of altative circuit and architectural paradigms,has the potential to offer orders of magnitude improvement in terms of power,performance,and capability.To take full advantage of beyond-CMOS devices,cross-layer efforts spanning from devices to circuits to architectures to algorithms are indispensable.This study examines energy-efficient neural network accelerators for embedded applications in this context.Several deep neural network accelerator designs based on cross-layer efforts spanning from altative device technologies,circuit styles,to architectures are highlighted.Application-level benchmarking studies are presented.The discussions demonstrate that cross-layer efforts indeed can lead to orders of magnitude gain towards achieving extreme-scale energy-efficient processing.