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【Abstract】Individual differences are regarded as a kind of objective factors in Second Language Teaching and Learning. There are many kinds of individual differences， among which learning style， learning strategy and learning motivation are considered as basic ones that influence second language acquisition to a large extent. The paper is going to give a brief review about some basic knowledge of individual differences in the field of Second Language Teaching and Learning from this three aspects.
【Key words】Second Language Teaching and Learning； individual differences； learning style； learning strategy； learning motivation
【摘要】個体差异是二语习得与教学中存在的一种客观因素。个体差异包括许多方面，其中，学习风格、学习策略和学习动机被认为是基本的三个因素，这些因素都在很大程度上影响着二语习得。文章旨在从上述三个方面的个体因素入手，对二语习得与教学中个体差异的基本相关知识进行一个简单的回顾。
【关键词】二语习得与教学 个体差异 学习风格 学习策略 学习动机
1. Introduction
It is known to us all that people are born with many individual differences， and these differences also can be reflected from the perspective of second language acquisition （SLA）. Generally speaking， there are many kinds of individual differences in Second Language Teaching and Learning， such as cognitive style， aptitude， motivation， attitude， sex， age， and so on. According to Ehrman （2003）， however， there are three basic individual differences， which are of great influential in Second Language Teaching and Learning， namely， learning style， learning motivation and learning strategy. This paper tries to give a brief review about individual differences in SLA from the three aspects.
2. Learning Style
The concept of learning style was first proposed by Herbert Thelen in 1954， and the origin of the idea can be traced back to some notions in psychology， such as field-independence （FI） and field-dependence （FD）. Although many scholars has drawn their attention to it since it was proposed， learning style has not got a certain definition till now. Different scholars try to give a comparatively well-formed definition to learning style from different perspectives. Among these definitions， Reid’s definition of learning style is regarded as an influential one. According to Reid （1987， 1998）， learning style is the preferred ways in which learners usually employ in order to take in， process and maintain new information or skills. Thus， one can draw a conclusion that learning style is the psychological inclination of learners when they attempt to learn something.
As to learning style， another dispute is whether it is a structure or a process. If one says that learning style is just a structure， it will mean that the learners’ learning style is not changeable at all. However， many researches have reflected that learners’ learning style can be changed into different kinds with the change of learners’ awareness. Similarly， if learning style is just regarded as a process， it will be changed constantly during the process of learning. Some studies， however， have shown that a learner’s learning style is comparatively stable. Accordingly， learning style is a combination of both structure and process. That is to say， learning style is stable comparatively， and it also can be changed according to the change of learning environments. According to this idea， Curry （1987） put forward the“Onion Model”， which divided learning style into four different dimensions， namely， personality， information processing， social interaction， and multidimensional and instructional preference. The personality dimension refers to the influences of the learner’s personality in the process of learning. The information processing dimension refers to the preferred ways in which learners take in information. The social interaction dimension refers to the function of interaction of learners in the classroom， while the last dimension refers to the learners’ preferred learning environments. In this model， different dimensions have different degree of stability， as there are differences between these four dimensions in the degree of interaction with the outside world. Consequently， with the long-termed influences of the outside world and awareness， learning style can be changed overtime. 3. Learning Strategy
Learning strategy is another important factor of individual differences in L2 teaching and learning. Generally speaking， learning strategies in SLA are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ in order to try to learn a second language well. Like learning style， however， the definition of learning strategy varies from one scholar to another. Rubin （1975） defines learning strategies as the skills which learners employ deliberately so as to improve their learning effects. Oxford （1995） held the view that learning strategy refers to all sorts of behaviors that learners have in order to improve their learning. Broadly speaking， studies on learning strategies are mainly carried out from four aspects， namely， the specific methods or skills， the procedures and steps of acquisition， the systems of implicit learning rules， and the students’ learning processes.
As to the classification of learning strategies， different researchers have different opinions. Rubin （1975） believes that learning strategies have direct influences on the development of a learner’s L2 system. Thus， she proposed six learning strategies which make direct effects. Oxford （1990）， however， holds the view that learning strategy can be divided into direct strategy and indirect strategy. Direct strategy is composed of memory strategy， cognitive strategy， and compensation strategy， while indirect strategy consists of meta-cognitive strategy， affective strategy， and social strategy.
Early studies on learning strategies mainly focused on the successful language learners. With the deepening of the researches， however， people find that the so-called“better learning strategies” do not always cause better effects， as it is not easy to define a“better strategy”. Oxford （2001） holds the view that“strategy chain”， which is the collection of the mutual connected and supported strategies， is the ideal learning strategy for language learners.
Although there is not a unified standard for the definition and classification of learning strategy， but various studies have concluded that learning strategy is one of the most important factors in Second Language Teaching and Learning.
4. Learning Motivation
Motivation is usually regarded as one of the factors in affective variables. Affective variables consist of many elements， such as attitude， belief， emotion， self-efficacy， anxiety， and so on. Motivation is one of the most influential elements among them in SLA. （Dornyei， 2003） Thus， learning motivation has received much attention from different scholars in the field of Second Language Teaching and Learning. 4.1 Integrative Motivation and Instrumental Motivation
Researches on learning motivation started around 1950s. Early studies hold the view that learning motivation is composed of four elements， namely， learners’ target， effort， desire and interest. Based on the social psychology， the early researches viewed learning motivation as a static characteristic of language learners. Gardner （1985） proposed two different kinds of learning attitudes， and then put forward two different learning motivations accordingly， namely， integrative motivation and instrumental motivation.
When some learners choose to learn a particular second language because they are interested in the people and culture represented by the target language group， these learners may have the integrative motivation in learning the L2. For example， it is this integrative orientation that underlies the motivation that many English-speaking Canadians have for learning French. （Rubin， 1975）
Learners may also make efforts to learn a second language for some functional reasons. For example， to pass an examination， to get a better job， etc.， and these motivations are usually regarded as instrumental motivations. In some learning contexts， second language learning as an instrument seems to be the major force that determines successful learning， for example， in settings where learners are motivated to learn a second language because it offers educational and economic opportunities for them.
Many scholars argue that the integrative motivation always lead to better achievements in second language acquisition. However， in certain learning contexts， an integrative motivation does not seem to be so important. For example， in one study， it was found that less integratively oriented Mexican women in California were more successful in learning English than those who were more integratively oriented. （Ellis， 1999） This shows that the integrative motivation does not necessarily lead to a better learning achievement in SLA.
4.2 Intrinsic Motivation and Resultative Motivation
From 1980s， learning motivation started to be researched from the perspective of psychology， and the main theory during this period is the distinction between intrinsic motivation and resultative motivation. Scholars hold the view that resultative motivation can be turned into intrinsic motivation under certain circumstances， which is different from the opposite relationship between integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. In some learning situations， it may not be learners’ general reasons for learning a second language， which is crucial in determining their motivation. Indeed， it is possible that many learners do not hold distinct attitudes， positive or negative， towards the target language group. Such is probably the case with many foreign language learners. It does not follow， however， that such learners are unmotivated. They may find the kinds of learning tasks they are asked to do intrinsically motivating. According to this view， motivation involves the arousal and maintenance of curiosity and can ebb and flow as a result of such factors as learners’ particular interests and the extent to which they feel personally involved in learning activities.
It is also possible that motivation is the result of learning. That is， learners who experience success in learning may become more， or in some contexts， less motivated to learn. This kind of motivation is regarded as the resultative motivation.
Deci and Ryan （1995） developed this distinction of motivations， and put forward the Self- determination Theory. According to this theory， intrinsic motivation， which is aroused by learners’ interest， is wholly self-determined. Deci and Ryan believe that the resultative motivation is not the opposite side of intrinsic motivation. The differences between these two kinds of motivation are determined by the degree of self- determination.
5. Conclusion
What have been reviewed above are the very basic things about the individual differences in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Nowadays， studies on individual differences in SLA has received a lot of emphasis from a great many researchers and thus， developed by leaps and bounds. As we all know， respecting individual differences during the process of teaching is one of the essential conditions for the improvement of second or foreign language teaching. Accordingly， researches on individual differences can help teachers improve their teaching efficiency， and it also can help language learners to know themselves better and choose a comparatively suitable method in second or foreign language learning.
References：
[1]Curry，L.Integrating Concepts of Cognitive or Learning Style：A Review with Attention to Psychometric Standards[R].Ottawa，ON：Canadian College of Health Service Executives，1987.
[2]Deci，E.L.and Ryan，M.Human autonomy：The basis for true self-esteem[C].// In M.H.Kernis（Ed.）Efficacy，Agency and Self-esteem.New York：Plenum.1995. [3]Dornyei，Z.Attitudes，Orientations，and Motivations in Language Learning：Advances in Theory，Research，and Applications[J].Language Learning，2003（Supplement1）：3-32.
[4]Ehrman，M.E.A Brief Overview of Individual Differences in Second Language Learning[J].System，2003，（31）：313-330.
[5]Ellis，R.The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，1999.
[6]Gardner，R.Social Psychology and Second Language Learning：The Role of Attitudes and Motivation[M].London： Edward Arnold，1985.
[7]Oxford，R.L.and Anderson N.J.A Cross-cultural View of Learning Styles[J].Language Teaching，1995，（28）：201-215.
[8]Oxford，R.L.Language Learning Styles and Strategies[C].//In Celce，M（ed.）Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language（3rd Impression）.Boston：Heinle and Heinle，2001.
[9]Reid，J.M.The Learning Style Preferences of ESL Students[J].TESOL Quarterly，1987，（21）：87-111.
[10]Reid，J.M.Teachers as Perceptual Learning Styles Researchers[C].//In Reid（ed.）Understanding Learning Styles in the Second Language Classroom.NJ：Prentice Hall Regents Inc.1998.
[11]Rubin，J.What the“Good Language Learner” Can Teach Us[J].TESOL Quarterly，1975，（9）：41-51.
作者簡介：樊瑶（1989.10-），女，山东莱芜人，济南大学泉城学院教师，硕士学位，助教，研究方向为英语语言学。
【Key words】Second Language Teaching and Learning； individual differences； learning style； learning strategy； learning motivation
【摘要】個体差异是二语习得与教学中存在的一种客观因素。个体差异包括许多方面，其中，学习风格、学习策略和学习动机被认为是基本的三个因素，这些因素都在很大程度上影响着二语习得。文章旨在从上述三个方面的个体因素入手，对二语习得与教学中个体差异的基本相关知识进行一个简单的回顾。
【关键词】二语习得与教学 个体差异 学习风格 学习策略 学习动机
1. Introduction
It is known to us all that people are born with many individual differences， and these differences also can be reflected from the perspective of second language acquisition （SLA）. Generally speaking， there are many kinds of individual differences in Second Language Teaching and Learning， such as cognitive style， aptitude， motivation， attitude， sex， age， and so on. According to Ehrman （2003）， however， there are three basic individual differences， which are of great influential in Second Language Teaching and Learning， namely， learning style， learning motivation and learning strategy. This paper tries to give a brief review about individual differences in SLA from the three aspects.
2. Learning Style
The concept of learning style was first proposed by Herbert Thelen in 1954， and the origin of the idea can be traced back to some notions in psychology， such as field-independence （FI） and field-dependence （FD）. Although many scholars has drawn their attention to it since it was proposed， learning style has not got a certain definition till now. Different scholars try to give a comparatively well-formed definition to learning style from different perspectives. Among these definitions， Reid’s definition of learning style is regarded as an influential one. According to Reid （1987， 1998）， learning style is the preferred ways in which learners usually employ in order to take in， process and maintain new information or skills. Thus， one can draw a conclusion that learning style is the psychological inclination of learners when they attempt to learn something.
As to learning style， another dispute is whether it is a structure or a process. If one says that learning style is just a structure， it will mean that the learners’ learning style is not changeable at all. However， many researches have reflected that learners’ learning style can be changed into different kinds with the change of learners’ awareness. Similarly， if learning style is just regarded as a process， it will be changed constantly during the process of learning. Some studies， however， have shown that a learner’s learning style is comparatively stable. Accordingly， learning style is a combination of both structure and process. That is to say， learning style is stable comparatively， and it also can be changed according to the change of learning environments. According to this idea， Curry （1987） put forward the“Onion Model”， which divided learning style into four different dimensions， namely， personality， information processing， social interaction， and multidimensional and instructional preference. The personality dimension refers to the influences of the learner’s personality in the process of learning. The information processing dimension refers to the preferred ways in which learners take in information. The social interaction dimension refers to the function of interaction of learners in the classroom， while the last dimension refers to the learners’ preferred learning environments. In this model， different dimensions have different degree of stability， as there are differences between these four dimensions in the degree of interaction with the outside world. Consequently， with the long-termed influences of the outside world and awareness， learning style can be changed overtime. 3. Learning Strategy
Learning strategy is another important factor of individual differences in L2 teaching and learning. Generally speaking， learning strategies in SLA are the particular approaches or techniques that learners employ in order to try to learn a second language well. Like learning style， however， the definition of learning strategy varies from one scholar to another. Rubin （1975） defines learning strategies as the skills which learners employ deliberately so as to improve their learning effects. Oxford （1995） held the view that learning strategy refers to all sorts of behaviors that learners have in order to improve their learning. Broadly speaking， studies on learning strategies are mainly carried out from four aspects， namely， the specific methods or skills， the procedures and steps of acquisition， the systems of implicit learning rules， and the students’ learning processes.
As to the classification of learning strategies， different researchers have different opinions. Rubin （1975） believes that learning strategies have direct influences on the development of a learner’s L2 system. Thus， she proposed six learning strategies which make direct effects. Oxford （1990）， however， holds the view that learning strategy can be divided into direct strategy and indirect strategy. Direct strategy is composed of memory strategy， cognitive strategy， and compensation strategy， while indirect strategy consists of meta-cognitive strategy， affective strategy， and social strategy.
Early studies on learning strategies mainly focused on the successful language learners. With the deepening of the researches， however， people find that the so-called“better learning strategies” do not always cause better effects， as it is not easy to define a“better strategy”. Oxford （2001） holds the view that“strategy chain”， which is the collection of the mutual connected and supported strategies， is the ideal learning strategy for language learners.
Although there is not a unified standard for the definition and classification of learning strategy， but various studies have concluded that learning strategy is one of the most important factors in Second Language Teaching and Learning.
4. Learning Motivation
Motivation is usually regarded as one of the factors in affective variables. Affective variables consist of many elements， such as attitude， belief， emotion， self-efficacy， anxiety， and so on. Motivation is one of the most influential elements among them in SLA. （Dornyei， 2003） Thus， learning motivation has received much attention from different scholars in the field of Second Language Teaching and Learning. 4.1 Integrative Motivation and Instrumental Motivation
Researches on learning motivation started around 1950s. Early studies hold the view that learning motivation is composed of four elements， namely， learners’ target， effort， desire and interest. Based on the social psychology， the early researches viewed learning motivation as a static characteristic of language learners. Gardner （1985） proposed two different kinds of learning attitudes， and then put forward two different learning motivations accordingly， namely， integrative motivation and instrumental motivation.
When some learners choose to learn a particular second language because they are interested in the people and culture represented by the target language group， these learners may have the integrative motivation in learning the L2. For example， it is this integrative orientation that underlies the motivation that many English-speaking Canadians have for learning French. （Rubin， 1975）
Learners may also make efforts to learn a second language for some functional reasons. For example， to pass an examination， to get a better job， etc.， and these motivations are usually regarded as instrumental motivations. In some learning contexts， second language learning as an instrument seems to be the major force that determines successful learning， for example， in settings where learners are motivated to learn a second language because it offers educational and economic opportunities for them.
Many scholars argue that the integrative motivation always lead to better achievements in second language acquisition. However， in certain learning contexts， an integrative motivation does not seem to be so important. For example， in one study， it was found that less integratively oriented Mexican women in California were more successful in learning English than those who were more integratively oriented. （Ellis， 1999） This shows that the integrative motivation does not necessarily lead to a better learning achievement in SLA.
4.2 Intrinsic Motivation and Resultative Motivation
From 1980s， learning motivation started to be researched from the perspective of psychology， and the main theory during this period is the distinction between intrinsic motivation and resultative motivation. Scholars hold the view that resultative motivation can be turned into intrinsic motivation under certain circumstances， which is different from the opposite relationship between integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. In some learning situations， it may not be learners’ general reasons for learning a second language， which is crucial in determining their motivation. Indeed， it is possible that many learners do not hold distinct attitudes， positive or negative， towards the target language group. Such is probably the case with many foreign language learners. It does not follow， however， that such learners are unmotivated. They may find the kinds of learning tasks they are asked to do intrinsically motivating. According to this view， motivation involves the arousal and maintenance of curiosity and can ebb and flow as a result of such factors as learners’ particular interests and the extent to which they feel personally involved in learning activities.
It is also possible that motivation is the result of learning. That is， learners who experience success in learning may become more， or in some contexts， less motivated to learn. This kind of motivation is regarded as the resultative motivation.
Deci and Ryan （1995） developed this distinction of motivations， and put forward the Self- determination Theory. According to this theory， intrinsic motivation， which is aroused by learners’ interest， is wholly self-determined. Deci and Ryan believe that the resultative motivation is not the opposite side of intrinsic motivation. The differences between these two kinds of motivation are determined by the degree of self- determination.
5. Conclusion
What have been reviewed above are the very basic things about the individual differences in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Nowadays， studies on individual differences in SLA has received a lot of emphasis from a great many researchers and thus， developed by leaps and bounds. As we all know， respecting individual differences during the process of teaching is one of the essential conditions for the improvement of second or foreign language teaching. Accordingly， researches on individual differences can help teachers improve their teaching efficiency， and it also can help language learners to know themselves better and choose a comparatively suitable method in second or foreign language learning.
References：
[1]Curry，L.Integrating Concepts of Cognitive or Learning Style：A Review with Attention to Psychometric Standards[R].Ottawa，ON：Canadian College of Health Service Executives，1987.
[2]Deci，E.L.and Ryan，M.Human autonomy：The basis for true self-esteem[C].// In M.H.Kernis（Ed.）Efficacy，Agency and Self-esteem.New York：Plenum.1995. [3]Dornyei，Z.Attitudes，Orientations，and Motivations in Language Learning：Advances in Theory，Research，and Applications[J].Language Learning，2003（Supplement1）：3-32.
[4]Ehrman，M.E.A Brief Overview of Individual Differences in Second Language Learning[J].System，2003，（31）：313-330.
[5]Ellis，R.The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M].Shanghai：Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，1999.
[6]Gardner，R.Social Psychology and Second Language Learning：The Role of Attitudes and Motivation[M].London： Edward Arnold，1985.
[7]Oxford，R.L.and Anderson N.J.A Cross-cultural View of Learning Styles[J].Language Teaching，1995，（28）：201-215.
[8]Oxford，R.L.Language Learning Styles and Strategies[C].//In Celce，M（ed.）Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language（3rd Impression）.Boston：Heinle and Heinle，2001.
[9]Reid，J.M.The Learning Style Preferences of ESL Students[J].TESOL Quarterly，1987，（21）：87-111.
[10]Reid，J.M.Teachers as Perceptual Learning Styles Researchers[C].//In Reid（ed.）Understanding Learning Styles in the Second Language Classroom.NJ：Prentice Hall Regents Inc.1998.
[11]Rubin，J.What the“Good Language Learner” Can Teach Us[J].TESOL Quarterly，1975，（9）：41-51.
作者簡介：樊瑶（1989.10-），女，山东莱芜人，济南大学泉城学院教师，硕士学位，助教，研究方向为英语语言学。