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摘要:随着我国经济的发展以及全球市场一体化的进一步加强,中国企业与美国企业的商业谈判迅速增加。由于价值、态度和行为等方面的文化差异,这些谈判可能会变得更加复杂和困难。本文分析了中美两国文化的不同,介绍了这种文化差异对企业谈判造成的影响,并给中国企业提供了一些建议,以期能帮助他们克服文化障碍,避免谈判中的误解,取得谈判成功。
关键词:文化差异,商务谈判,高语境,低语境下的集体主义,个人主义;层次;平均主义,系统思维,线性思维;权力距离。
Impacts of Cultural Differences on Sino-American Business Negotiations
Wu Li
(School of International Studies, University of International Business and Economics)
Abstract: Along with the strengthening of Chinese economy and further integration with the global market, business negotiations between Chinese enterprises and American enterprises have been increasing rapidly. These negotiations are likely to become more complex and difficult due to the cultural differences in value,attitude and behavior. This paper analyzes differences between Chinese and American culture, introduces impacts which result from such cultural differences, and provides Chinese negotiators with some recommendations which can help them overcome cultural obstacles, avoid misunderstandings and achieve successful negotiations.
Keywords: Cultural Differences; Business Negotiation; High Context; Low Context Collectivism; Individualism; Hierarchy; Egalitarianism; Systemic Thinking; Linear Thinking; Power Distance
1. Introduction
Along with the advancement of globalization and China's WTO entry, business enterprises in China have to face more and more business negotiations with foreign enterprises, especially with American enterprises. In these negotiations, Chinese negotiators sometimes feel uncomfortable, puzzled, lost, irritated and the alike,because of unfamiliar custom and behaviors demonstrated by American negotiators. Meanwhile, American negotiators confront the same problem. Cultural differences between China and America are the crucial cause which enlarged the indetermination of the bilateral business negotiations and difficulties of agreement. Therefore, understanding cultural differences and crossing over the cultural obstacles become the core point in business negotiations between China and America.
Although definitions of culture are numerous and vague, it is commonly recognized that culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms for behavior [1]. Culture is the major determinant of strategies and tactics in business negotiations. Because negotiations involve communication, time and power, and these variables differ across cultures. China and America have different historical backgrounds and processes of social development respectively. Thus their cultural differences are high level.
2. Differences between Chinese and American Culture and Impacts on Business Negotiations
To compare the differences between American and Chinese cultures, culture orientations are needed to identify a culture by its core values. There are many culture orientations presented by scholars and the following six are the most important and prevalent culture orientations which have significant impacts on business negotiations.
2.1 High Context vs. Low Context
Chinese culture is a high-context culture. The Chinese rely less on verbal communication yet more on the context of nonverbal cues, environmental settings, and implicit information to convey meanings [2].As a result, Chinese negotiators can appear as rather indirect and vague in business negotiations. In contrast, American culture is a low-context culture. The Americans rely more on verbal communication and less on circumstances and non-verbal cues to convey meanings. So they are very direct, precise and explicit in negotiations.
Therefore, misunderstandings can occur because the Chinese negotiators are seeking information on many levels in addition to the spoken word, but the Americans mainly depend on the words said by Chinese negotiators and disregarded the context. Therefore, the messages conveyed are mistakenly interpreted. For example, due to their tendency to protect the face of each side and avoid open conflict, Chinese negotiators seldom say "no" openly to the other party's face. Nevertheless, they will send the signal of "refusal" through various channels, but unfortunately, as their low-context partners are not "programmed" to decode this signal by Americans, misunderstanding will generally occur.
2.2 Collectivism vs. Individualism
Chinese culture is a collectivist culture in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive groups, which throughout their lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Individual in China is regarded as part of the group and a high degree of interdependence prevails in the same group [3]. Therefore emphasis on the establishment of relationship in social life is mirrored when the Chinese negotiate with their American counterparts. Chinese negotiators, tending to take a relational approach to negotiation, have a fluid view of contracts and attach great importance to establishing a sustainable business relationship. Therefore, their primary goal is to create the bonding of friendship. The failure of relationship building often results in the abortion of transaction in the end. The contract, for the Chinese negotiators, does not mean finality but a starting point.
American culture is an individualist culture in which independence is highly valued. The concept of individualism puts the "self" above all other else. Individuals in individualistic cultures are expected to take care of themselves, to attach greater importance to the individual identity over group identity, and individual rights over group obligations, the needs of the individual over that of the collective (the group, community, or society). Society is but a larger "self" [4]. In American culture, a tendency exists to put task before relationship and to value independence highly. Individuals can earn credit or blame for the success or failure of a company project in America. While in China, credit or blame goes to the group. So American negotiators, on the contrary, generally taking a transactional approach to negotiation, devote their energy and time to the deal itself and attempt at achieving the finalization of the deal. They, viewing the interpersonal relationship as incidental, or in some cases, partly instrumental to the negotiation process, think of the signing of a contract between the parties as their primary negotiating aim. They consider such a contract a binding agreement that outlines the roles, rights and obligations of each party.
2.3 Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism
China is more hierarchical compared to America. In China, the status boundaries are relatively fixed and the influence is determined by existing hierarchical relationships. It is important to show the proper respect for individuals depending on their rank and position within an organization, and it is considered inappropriate to interrupt authority figures when they are speaking and their opinions carry a lot of weight. So the Chinese are expected to follow the order of their superiors.
American culture has relatively permeable status boundaries and flat social structure. The role of the individual is emphasized and the sense of personal freedom is very strong [5]. Although the authority's or superior's decisions also influence the negotiations, the American negotiating team with a supreme leader has relatively more power to decide all matters.
When the negotiations between Chinese and American negotiators occur, a visible leader or "boss" is usually among the Chinese team members. This, however, does not mean that he can make the final decisions. He may need to seek his superior or higher authority to make the final approval. Because of the hierarchical structure, it may take long time to wait for the final decisions by the exact person. This also partly explains why the pace of negotiation of the Chinese tends to be slow.
Due to the lack of understanding of the decision-making process of their Chinese partners, many Americans, however, are often annoyed by the pace of negotiation. They doubt that the Chinese play the "restricted authority" tactic to gain negotiation advantages, for example, gaining more time for reaction or pressing for more concessions by protracting the negotiation process [6].
2.4 Systemic Thinking vs. Linear Thinking
Thinking from a cultural dimension concerns the culture's propensity for conceptualization. There are two kinds of thinking patterns: systematic thinking and linear thinking [7].
The Chinese are systemic thinkers. When facing a problem, the Chinese stress an integrated approach, sometimes called holistic or synthetic [8]. This integrated viewpoint focuses on the relationships and connections between parts. The Chinese emphasize that specific issues are intricately interwoven with more complex ideas. They display a holistic way of thinking, preferring to understand how the overall picture fits together before getting into specific details. As a result of their systematic tendency, it is important for them to see how a decision affects not only immediate issues but also those outside the matter at hand [9].
The Americans, on the other hand, are linear thinkers. They tend to dissect a problem or an issue into small chunks that can be linked in chains of cause and effect. The emphasis tends to be on detail, precision, and pragmatic results [10].
As a result, when negotiations are going to reach an agreement, Chinese negotiators prefer an implicit, broad, and oral contract in the form of general principles, expressing mutual cooperation and trust between the concerned parties. The contract leaves room for the parties to deal with the problems and begins the formation of personal relationships. The implicit contract assumes that the importance of the relationship overrides substantive concerns. Implicit agreements depend heavily on relationship. Obligations are unlimited and immeasurable. American negotiators, on the other hand, prefer an explicit, detailed, written contract that attempts to anticipate all possible circumstance, no matter how unlikely. The explicit contract assumes that no relationship exists between the parties because personal relationships are concerned unnecessary and friendship may be a hindrance. A contract only represents a relationship of interest exchange. Obligations are limited to those specific, detailed actions provided in the contract. Although circumstances may change, obligations do not, and each is bound to his explicit commitment.
2.5 High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance
The differences in the emphasis of protocol between Chinese and American negotiators can be illustrated by their own power-distance cultures. Power distance refers to the acceptance of authority differences among people, the difference between those who hold power and those affected by power [11].
Chinese society is one with high power distance, or in other words, a vertical society. In China, a high value is placed on etiquette, protocol, and ritualistic exchanges. Chinese people tend to believe that things can be done in a proper way or in an improper way. To evaluate one's credibility and trustworthiness, the Chinese judge by whether one knows and conforms to the Chinese rules of etiquette, protocol, and customs. Such culture stems from a long history and tradition in which exists rigorous consciousness of class and hierarchy [12].
The Chinese emphasis of protocol refers to negotiators' attitudes towards etiquettes, ceremony and how they interact with their counterparts at the table. Chinese negotiators generally have a formal style of interaction. In China, honorifics, titles, and status are extremely important. Chinese people expect "leaders" to behave as "leaders" and to be treated as "leaders". The Chinese address their counterparts by their proper titles. They do not use first names unless the personal relationship between the counterparts is very close. For the Chinese, the use of first name at a first meeting is an act of disrespect and therefore an improper way. Chinese people expect to build relationship based on the acknowledgement of differences, on respect for status, and on deference to title [13].
The Americans, on the contrary, are in a low power-distance culture. Low power-distance culture tends to be absent of strict hierarchy in communicative behaviors and to view unnecessary and over elaborate formalities as a barrier to communication and relationship building [14]. The horizontal distribution of power contributes to people's informal behavior. Social convention is egalitarian, and differences of people, groups, classes, ranks or genders are acknowledged but not emphasized. The absence of clear rules and guidelines for conduct is a key feature of informal environments. There is often a shared belief in "breaking down the red tape", and there are indications that an informal communication style is associated with a sense of interpersonal authenticity.
The American negotiators have a comparatively more informal style. The Americans believe that an informal, casual style of communication demonstrates sincerity and credibility. They often feel uncomfortable in situations that it is necessary to follow prescribed etiquette and decorum. The Americans are "notoriously" casual about their use of first name, physical contact, dress, disregard for titles, whether use business cards, invitations, conduct at social events, etc. For an American, calling someone by his first name is an act of friendship and goodwill.
2.6 Polychronic vs. Monochronic
The Chinese has a culture as Polychronic. In China, time is regarded more fluid and people do not observe strict schedules.Preset schedules are subordinate to interpersonal relations and people can use any time to get to know each other and build a foundation for the business relationship.It is not unusual in China for business meetings to be interrupted by other things completely unrelated to the discussion.
The Americans have a culture as Monochronic. In America, time is seen as a way to organize the business day efficiently. American people place a high emphasis on schedules, a precise reckoning of time and promptness. Schedules usually take precedence over interpersonal relations.People in such culture try to get to the point quickly when communicating and they also tend to focus on only one task during each scheduled period [15].
When in the middle term of negotiation, Chinese negotiators prefer to draw things out, while American negotiators hurry to reach an agreement. Chinese negotiators generally believe that a considerable amount of time should be invested in establishing a general climate of understanding, trust, and willingness, in matters quite apart from the specific business issues brought to the table. Producing a satisfactory agreement as quickly as possible may be one of their least concerns. Therefore, the non-task stage of negotiation often witnesses much time spending in getting to know their partners and establishing rapport. To Americans negotiators, time is money, a commodity in limited supply. They might expect a meeting to begin and end at a certain time, with a series of important points discussed. The American negotiators expect their counterparts to adhere to schedules and to arrive promptly for appointments and meetings. Delays or postponements cause their awfulness. They can express both verbally and nonverbally, and quickly take action to get things back on schedule.
3. Recommendations for Chinese Negotiators
According to the above analysis, when negotiating with the Americans, Chinese negotiators should pay more attention to the following recommendations.
3.1 Developing Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity
Chinese negotiators need, first of all, to know that American counterparts are different from themselves, not only in physical features, motivations, but also in beliefs, values and social norms for they are cultivated in a different culture. When the American counterparts do things differently, it does not mean that they are impolite, inefficient or stupid. Although suffering discomfort or irritated, Chinese negotiators should understand what kind of people their counterparts are and how their behavior may impact their American counterparts. Failure to do so, the negotiation may be damaged and even broken down.
3.2 Learning to Adapt the Cultural Differences
Chinese negotiators should demonstrate interest in, knowledge of, respect for American culture, learn as much as possible about American culture, and adapt the cultural differences between China and America. Chinese negotiators should apply what they learn into the progress of the negotiations, be flexible and ready to adapt or adjust behaviors. For instance, do not arrange American counterparts in a room of number thirteen, and do not ask the Americans about their private problems such as income, age, marriage status, etc.
3.3 Prepare Carefully
Chinese negotiators need to prepare carefully both culturally and technically for negotiations. Before entering negotiations, it is appropriate and demanding for Chinese negotiators to spend time learning about the customs and culture of their negotiation partners. Moreover, Chinese negotiators should know enough information about their counterparts' team composition, their personal backgrounds, decision-making process, expectations and constraints, competitors, etc. For a business negotiation is a problem-solving activity to the Americans, the best preparation will greatly facilitate the atmosphere, smooth the negotiation process and enhance bargaining power
3.4 Be Sincere, Polite and Tolerant
Chinese negotiators should pay more attention to adhering to the schedule and avoiding being late. When the negotiations begin, Chinese negotiators should act in an appropriate way such as keeping quiet and listening attentively when Americans negotiators explain their opinions or concerns. The Chinese should get into the topic at proper point getting rid of unnecessary time costing. However, when debates occur, Chinese negotiators should be polite and tolerant with devoting more time to persuade counterparts and show sincerity because most Americans take debates in negotiations as normal events.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion of the above analysis, it can be summarized that cultures have influences over all the basic elements of negotiation. The consequences resulting from cultural differences are a great danger for smooth negotiation between the Chinese and the Americans. Therefore, understanding the cultural differences and considering the impacts in all facets of Sino-American business negotiations are of great significance to make negotiations successful. A famous Chinese tactician maintains that, "know yourself and your enemies, and you may win one hundred victories in one hundred battles". Chinese negotiators should cultivate cultural awareness, adapt the cultural differences barriers and overcome cultural barriers to make successful negotiations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
[1]Feng, A. Intercultural communication. In Lee, et al, An IT student's guide to business and technical communication, Singapore: Prentice Hall. 2002. P. 27 - 46.
[2]Campbell, C.P. Rhetorical: A bridge between high-context and low-context cultures. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1998.P.31 - 48.
[3] J. Z. Namenwith and R. B. Weber, Dynamics of Culture, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987, P.8.
[4] R. Mead, International Management: Cross-cultural Dimensions, Oxford: Blackwell Business. 1994.
[5]Gibson, R. Intercultural business communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.2000.
[6]Trompenaars,F. and Hampden-Turner, C. Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in global business. New York: McGraw-Hill.1998.
[7] F.P. Delgado, "The Nature of Power Across Communicative and Cultural Borders". Paper delivered at the Annual Convention of the Speech Communication Association, Miami Beach, FL. 1993, P.11.
[8]Geert Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work Related Values, Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1984.
[9] Wang, Y. Business Culture in China. Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998, P.20.
[10]Graham, John L. "Across the Negotiating Table from the Japanese," International Business Review, Autumn, 1986, P.58-70.
[11]Asma, A. Going global: Cultural dimensions in Malaysian management.Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Institute of Management. 1996.
[12] E. A. Hobel, & E. L. Frost, Cultural and Social Anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1976, P.324.
[13] Griffin, T. J. and Daggatt, W. R. The Global Negotiator. HarperBusiness,1990.
[14]Foster, D. The global etiquette guide to Asia. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2000.
[15] Raymond Cohen, Negotiating Across Cultures: Communication Obstacles in International Diplomacy, Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1991.
作者简介:吴丽对外经济贸易大学 英语学院 商务英语专业 在职硕士。
关键词:文化差异,商务谈判,高语境,低语境下的集体主义,个人主义;层次;平均主义,系统思维,线性思维;权力距离。
Impacts of Cultural Differences on Sino-American Business Negotiations
Wu Li
(School of International Studies, University of International Business and Economics)
Abstract: Along with the strengthening of Chinese economy and further integration with the global market, business negotiations between Chinese enterprises and American enterprises have been increasing rapidly. These negotiations are likely to become more complex and difficult due to the cultural differences in value,attitude and behavior. This paper analyzes differences between Chinese and American culture, introduces impacts which result from such cultural differences, and provides Chinese negotiators with some recommendations which can help them overcome cultural obstacles, avoid misunderstandings and achieve successful negotiations.
Keywords: Cultural Differences; Business Negotiation; High Context; Low Context Collectivism; Individualism; Hierarchy; Egalitarianism; Systemic Thinking; Linear Thinking; Power Distance
1. Introduction
Along with the advancement of globalization and China's WTO entry, business enterprises in China have to face more and more business negotiations with foreign enterprises, especially with American enterprises. In these negotiations, Chinese negotiators sometimes feel uncomfortable, puzzled, lost, irritated and the alike,because of unfamiliar custom and behaviors demonstrated by American negotiators. Meanwhile, American negotiators confront the same problem. Cultural differences between China and America are the crucial cause which enlarged the indetermination of the bilateral business negotiations and difficulties of agreement. Therefore, understanding cultural differences and crossing over the cultural obstacles become the core point in business negotiations between China and America.
Although definitions of culture are numerous and vague, it is commonly recognized that culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms for behavior [1]. Culture is the major determinant of strategies and tactics in business negotiations. Because negotiations involve communication, time and power, and these variables differ across cultures. China and America have different historical backgrounds and processes of social development respectively. Thus their cultural differences are high level.
2. Differences between Chinese and American Culture and Impacts on Business Negotiations
To compare the differences between American and Chinese cultures, culture orientations are needed to identify a culture by its core values. There are many culture orientations presented by scholars and the following six are the most important and prevalent culture orientations which have significant impacts on business negotiations.
2.1 High Context vs. Low Context
Chinese culture is a high-context culture. The Chinese rely less on verbal communication yet more on the context of nonverbal cues, environmental settings, and implicit information to convey meanings [2].As a result, Chinese negotiators can appear as rather indirect and vague in business negotiations. In contrast, American culture is a low-context culture. The Americans rely more on verbal communication and less on circumstances and non-verbal cues to convey meanings. So they are very direct, precise and explicit in negotiations.
Therefore, misunderstandings can occur because the Chinese negotiators are seeking information on many levels in addition to the spoken word, but the Americans mainly depend on the words said by Chinese negotiators and disregarded the context. Therefore, the messages conveyed are mistakenly interpreted. For example, due to their tendency to protect the face of each side and avoid open conflict, Chinese negotiators seldom say "no" openly to the other party's face. Nevertheless, they will send the signal of "refusal" through various channels, but unfortunately, as their low-context partners are not "programmed" to decode this signal by Americans, misunderstanding will generally occur.
2.2 Collectivism vs. Individualism
Chinese culture is a collectivist culture in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive groups, which throughout their lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Individual in China is regarded as part of the group and a high degree of interdependence prevails in the same group [3]. Therefore emphasis on the establishment of relationship in social life is mirrored when the Chinese negotiate with their American counterparts. Chinese negotiators, tending to take a relational approach to negotiation, have a fluid view of contracts and attach great importance to establishing a sustainable business relationship. Therefore, their primary goal is to create the bonding of friendship. The failure of relationship building often results in the abortion of transaction in the end. The contract, for the Chinese negotiators, does not mean finality but a starting point.
American culture is an individualist culture in which independence is highly valued. The concept of individualism puts the "self" above all other else. Individuals in individualistic cultures are expected to take care of themselves, to attach greater importance to the individual identity over group identity, and individual rights over group obligations, the needs of the individual over that of the collective (the group, community, or society). Society is but a larger "self" [4]. In American culture, a tendency exists to put task before relationship and to value independence highly. Individuals can earn credit or blame for the success or failure of a company project in America. While in China, credit or blame goes to the group. So American negotiators, on the contrary, generally taking a transactional approach to negotiation, devote their energy and time to the deal itself and attempt at achieving the finalization of the deal. They, viewing the interpersonal relationship as incidental, or in some cases, partly instrumental to the negotiation process, think of the signing of a contract between the parties as their primary negotiating aim. They consider such a contract a binding agreement that outlines the roles, rights and obligations of each party.
2.3 Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism
China is more hierarchical compared to America. In China, the status boundaries are relatively fixed and the influence is determined by existing hierarchical relationships. It is important to show the proper respect for individuals depending on their rank and position within an organization, and it is considered inappropriate to interrupt authority figures when they are speaking and their opinions carry a lot of weight. So the Chinese are expected to follow the order of their superiors.
American culture has relatively permeable status boundaries and flat social structure. The role of the individual is emphasized and the sense of personal freedom is very strong [5]. Although the authority's or superior's decisions also influence the negotiations, the American negotiating team with a supreme leader has relatively more power to decide all matters.
When the negotiations between Chinese and American negotiators occur, a visible leader or "boss" is usually among the Chinese team members. This, however, does not mean that he can make the final decisions. He may need to seek his superior or higher authority to make the final approval. Because of the hierarchical structure, it may take long time to wait for the final decisions by the exact person. This also partly explains why the pace of negotiation of the Chinese tends to be slow.
Due to the lack of understanding of the decision-making process of their Chinese partners, many Americans, however, are often annoyed by the pace of negotiation. They doubt that the Chinese play the "restricted authority" tactic to gain negotiation advantages, for example, gaining more time for reaction or pressing for more concessions by protracting the negotiation process [6].
2.4 Systemic Thinking vs. Linear Thinking
Thinking from a cultural dimension concerns the culture's propensity for conceptualization. There are two kinds of thinking patterns: systematic thinking and linear thinking [7].
The Chinese are systemic thinkers. When facing a problem, the Chinese stress an integrated approach, sometimes called holistic or synthetic [8]. This integrated viewpoint focuses on the relationships and connections between parts. The Chinese emphasize that specific issues are intricately interwoven with more complex ideas. They display a holistic way of thinking, preferring to understand how the overall picture fits together before getting into specific details. As a result of their systematic tendency, it is important for them to see how a decision affects not only immediate issues but also those outside the matter at hand [9].
The Americans, on the other hand, are linear thinkers. They tend to dissect a problem or an issue into small chunks that can be linked in chains of cause and effect. The emphasis tends to be on detail, precision, and pragmatic results [10].
As a result, when negotiations are going to reach an agreement, Chinese negotiators prefer an implicit, broad, and oral contract in the form of general principles, expressing mutual cooperation and trust between the concerned parties. The contract leaves room for the parties to deal with the problems and begins the formation of personal relationships. The implicit contract assumes that the importance of the relationship overrides substantive concerns. Implicit agreements depend heavily on relationship. Obligations are unlimited and immeasurable. American negotiators, on the other hand, prefer an explicit, detailed, written contract that attempts to anticipate all possible circumstance, no matter how unlikely. The explicit contract assumes that no relationship exists between the parties because personal relationships are concerned unnecessary and friendship may be a hindrance. A contract only represents a relationship of interest exchange. Obligations are limited to those specific, detailed actions provided in the contract. Although circumstances may change, obligations do not, and each is bound to his explicit commitment.
2.5 High Power Distance vs. Low Power Distance
The differences in the emphasis of protocol between Chinese and American negotiators can be illustrated by their own power-distance cultures. Power distance refers to the acceptance of authority differences among people, the difference between those who hold power and those affected by power [11].
Chinese society is one with high power distance, or in other words, a vertical society. In China, a high value is placed on etiquette, protocol, and ritualistic exchanges. Chinese people tend to believe that things can be done in a proper way or in an improper way. To evaluate one's credibility and trustworthiness, the Chinese judge by whether one knows and conforms to the Chinese rules of etiquette, protocol, and customs. Such culture stems from a long history and tradition in which exists rigorous consciousness of class and hierarchy [12].
The Chinese emphasis of protocol refers to negotiators' attitudes towards etiquettes, ceremony and how they interact with their counterparts at the table. Chinese negotiators generally have a formal style of interaction. In China, honorifics, titles, and status are extremely important. Chinese people expect "leaders" to behave as "leaders" and to be treated as "leaders". The Chinese address their counterparts by their proper titles. They do not use first names unless the personal relationship between the counterparts is very close. For the Chinese, the use of first name at a first meeting is an act of disrespect and therefore an improper way. Chinese people expect to build relationship based on the acknowledgement of differences, on respect for status, and on deference to title [13].
The Americans, on the contrary, are in a low power-distance culture. Low power-distance culture tends to be absent of strict hierarchy in communicative behaviors and to view unnecessary and over elaborate formalities as a barrier to communication and relationship building [14]. The horizontal distribution of power contributes to people's informal behavior. Social convention is egalitarian, and differences of people, groups, classes, ranks or genders are acknowledged but not emphasized. The absence of clear rules and guidelines for conduct is a key feature of informal environments. There is often a shared belief in "breaking down the red tape", and there are indications that an informal communication style is associated with a sense of interpersonal authenticity.
The American negotiators have a comparatively more informal style. The Americans believe that an informal, casual style of communication demonstrates sincerity and credibility. They often feel uncomfortable in situations that it is necessary to follow prescribed etiquette and decorum. The Americans are "notoriously" casual about their use of first name, physical contact, dress, disregard for titles, whether use business cards, invitations, conduct at social events, etc. For an American, calling someone by his first name is an act of friendship and goodwill.
2.6 Polychronic vs. Monochronic
The Chinese has a culture as Polychronic. In China, time is regarded more fluid and people do not observe strict schedules.Preset schedules are subordinate to interpersonal relations and people can use any time to get to know each other and build a foundation for the business relationship.It is not unusual in China for business meetings to be interrupted by other things completely unrelated to the discussion.
The Americans have a culture as Monochronic. In America, time is seen as a way to organize the business day efficiently. American people place a high emphasis on schedules, a precise reckoning of time and promptness. Schedules usually take precedence over interpersonal relations.People in such culture try to get to the point quickly when communicating and they also tend to focus on only one task during each scheduled period [15].
When in the middle term of negotiation, Chinese negotiators prefer to draw things out, while American negotiators hurry to reach an agreement. Chinese negotiators generally believe that a considerable amount of time should be invested in establishing a general climate of understanding, trust, and willingness, in matters quite apart from the specific business issues brought to the table. Producing a satisfactory agreement as quickly as possible may be one of their least concerns. Therefore, the non-task stage of negotiation often witnesses much time spending in getting to know their partners and establishing rapport. To Americans negotiators, time is money, a commodity in limited supply. They might expect a meeting to begin and end at a certain time, with a series of important points discussed. The American negotiators expect their counterparts to adhere to schedules and to arrive promptly for appointments and meetings. Delays or postponements cause their awfulness. They can express both verbally and nonverbally, and quickly take action to get things back on schedule.
3. Recommendations for Chinese Negotiators
According to the above analysis, when negotiating with the Americans, Chinese negotiators should pay more attention to the following recommendations.
3.1 Developing Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity
Chinese negotiators need, first of all, to know that American counterparts are different from themselves, not only in physical features, motivations, but also in beliefs, values and social norms for they are cultivated in a different culture. When the American counterparts do things differently, it does not mean that they are impolite, inefficient or stupid. Although suffering discomfort or irritated, Chinese negotiators should understand what kind of people their counterparts are and how their behavior may impact their American counterparts. Failure to do so, the negotiation may be damaged and even broken down.
3.2 Learning to Adapt the Cultural Differences
Chinese negotiators should demonstrate interest in, knowledge of, respect for American culture, learn as much as possible about American culture, and adapt the cultural differences between China and America. Chinese negotiators should apply what they learn into the progress of the negotiations, be flexible and ready to adapt or adjust behaviors. For instance, do not arrange American counterparts in a room of number thirteen, and do not ask the Americans about their private problems such as income, age, marriage status, etc.
3.3 Prepare Carefully
Chinese negotiators need to prepare carefully both culturally and technically for negotiations. Before entering negotiations, it is appropriate and demanding for Chinese negotiators to spend time learning about the customs and culture of their negotiation partners. Moreover, Chinese negotiators should know enough information about their counterparts' team composition, their personal backgrounds, decision-making process, expectations and constraints, competitors, etc. For a business negotiation is a problem-solving activity to the Americans, the best preparation will greatly facilitate the atmosphere, smooth the negotiation process and enhance bargaining power
3.4 Be Sincere, Polite and Tolerant
Chinese negotiators should pay more attention to adhering to the schedule and avoiding being late. When the negotiations begin, Chinese negotiators should act in an appropriate way such as keeping quiet and listening attentively when Americans negotiators explain their opinions or concerns. The Chinese should get into the topic at proper point getting rid of unnecessary time costing. However, when debates occur, Chinese negotiators should be polite and tolerant with devoting more time to persuade counterparts and show sincerity because most Americans take debates in negotiations as normal events.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion of the above analysis, it can be summarized that cultures have influences over all the basic elements of negotiation. The consequences resulting from cultural differences are a great danger for smooth negotiation between the Chinese and the Americans. Therefore, understanding the cultural differences and considering the impacts in all facets of Sino-American business negotiations are of great significance to make negotiations successful. A famous Chinese tactician maintains that, "know yourself and your enemies, and you may win one hundred victories in one hundred battles". Chinese negotiators should cultivate cultural awareness, adapt the cultural differences barriers and overcome cultural barriers to make successful negotiations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
[1]Feng, A. Intercultural communication. In Lee, et al, An IT student's guide to business and technical communication, Singapore: Prentice Hall. 2002. P. 27 - 46.
[2]Campbell, C.P. Rhetorical: A bridge between high-context and low-context cultures. John Benjamins Publishing Company. 1998.P.31 - 48.
[3] J. Z. Namenwith and R. B. Weber, Dynamics of Culture, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987, P.8.
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作者简介:吴丽对外经济贸易大学 英语学院 商务英语专业 在职硕士。