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【Abstract】Jane Austen was an English novelist whose works of romantic fiction set among the gentry have earned her a place as one of the most widely read and most beloved writers in English literature. Pride and Prejudice is claimed as the first and the most attractive novel of Austen’s literary creation. Dialogue is an important part of fiction and plays a role to depict the characters and promote the plot development. The Cooperative Principle will be utilized to elaborate on how the characters flout the maxims of the Cooperative Principle in their conversation and how the conversational implicatures are generated. Guided by the Cooperative Principle, this thesis in one side manifests Jane Austen’s language features and also may help the audience enjoy the novel and maintain the stable and harmonious relationship in real human interaction.
【Key words】 Pragmatic analysis; Pride and Prejudice; Cooperative Principle
【中图分类号】G251 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】1001-4128(2010)10-0097-05
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 A brief introduction to the thesis
1.1.1 A brief introduction to the author
Jane Austen is a remarkable woman writer in the 19th century English literature. Her representative work—Pride and Prejudice has been enjoying enormous popularity since its publication. She is regarded as one of the masters of the English novel for her unique talent in bringing the small society she knew so well real to life in her vivid and witty language.
1.1.2 The greatness existing in her description of the language
Compared to Jane Austen’s other works, Pride and Prejudice is much lighter, brighter, more sparkling, and more competent. In this novel, she deliberately violates the Cooperative Principle. Meanwhile, we can see she is a master of driving the language. Through the thesis, we will have a better understanding of her language.
1.1.3 The method used in the thesis and a guide to the paper
Not many analyses have been done on Pride and Prejudice based on the cooperative principle before my thesis. Attention has only been given to the historical background of the author or the cultural study of the novel instead of its linguistic features. Nevertheless, the text emphasizes the using of the cooperative principle to analysis her language.
The thesis consists of five chapters inclusive of the introduction and the conclusion. Chapter II is from the perspective of quantity maxim. It gives an exact definition of the quantity maxim. And examples are quoted to testify the necessity of violating maxims when it is necessary. For example, Austen portrays Wickham’s impudence by letting him revenge Darcy through violating the maxim of quantity. In this way, Wickham’s personalities come out vividly. Chapter III is based on the perspective of quality maxim. From the analysis, we can see Mr. Bennet and Mrs. Bennet’s totally different characters. Chapter IV is from the perspective of relation maxim and manner maxim
This thesis would be significant for future studies in that it provides a new angle for appreciating novel. It is hoped that this paper will enrich the application of theories of the Cooperative Principle analysis to novels.
1.2 Grice’s Cooperative Principle
1.2.1 The Definition of the Cooperative Principle
The Cooperative Principle is a principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is that one is supposed to make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged. To be more specific, there are four maxims in this general principle: the Maxim of Quantity, the Maxim of Quality, the Maxim of Relation, the Maxim of Manner. (Gao Wencheng182)
According to Grice, participants of the conversation should be cooperative in the course of exchange of their talk and abide by the rules mentioned above.
However, in reality, people more often than not tend to violate and flout the maxims of the Cooperative Principle, deliberately or unintentionally, which result in implicatures. This applies to fictional dialogues. A successful communication consists of a series of interconnected utterances and it is the joint efforts of all the interlocutors. One of the major pragmatic principles most frequently used in analyzing fictional dialogues is the cooperative principle first put forward by H.P. Grice at the William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1967, and later developed in Logic and Conversation in 1975. He suggests that communication is guided by a set of rational, universal principles and sub-principles (called maxims) that underlie people’s efficient and effective use of language in conversation to further co-operative ends.(Xu Xiaoying 12)
The cooperative principle (abbreviated as CP) runs as follows: Make your contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. (He Zhaoxiong 92) To be more specific, there are four maxims in this general principle:the Maxim of Quantity, the Maxim of Quality, the Maxim of Relation, the Maxim of Manner.
A common aim or purpose should be followed throughout the communication to assure a successful conversation. Both the speaker(s) and the hearer(s) should have tacit agreement that they should abide by the cooperative principle as some kind of laws in communication. Simply speaking, we should say what we have to say at the right time and in the right way as well as break some of the rules to achieve both conversational and written effect.
1.2.2 The four conversational maxims
The Maxim of Quantity: The maxim of quantity is concerned with the amount of information to be provided by an utterance, and under it fall the following maxims. The Maxim of Quality: The maxim of quality is concerned with truth telling, and has two parts. The Maxim of Relation: The maxim of relation is very simple. The Maxim of Manner: The maxim of manner has four parts.
In short, speakers are supposed to comply with the maxims in order to converse in an efficient, rational, cooperative way: they should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly, while providing sufficient information. (Levinson102)
Chapter 2 A pragmatic analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice from the perspective of quantity maxim
2.1 The meaning of quantity maxim
(1) Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange
(2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
Look at the following examples:
Example 1
A: Is the exam difficult?
B: Not very actually. My mother teaches me to play the piano on the weekends, and father cooks for us. (Ran Yongping 57)
In the above example, the information B offered surpasses what A wants to know, so it violates the quantity maxim.
Example 2
A: When is Susan’s farewell party?
B: Sometime next month.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B knows exactly when Susan is going to give her farewell party. Thus B is withholding some of the information required at this stage of conversation and is thus flouting the maxim of quantity. The implicature that results is “I do not wish to tell you when the party is going to be held.” (He Zhaoxiong 93)
2.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of quantity maxim
The key conflict between the hero and heroin lies in Elizabeth’s prejudice against Darcy. There is no doubt that the bias is caused by the latter's arrogance. But to a large extent, it is Elizabeth who is credulous of Wickham’s slander to Darcy. The approach which Wickham used is telling the truth—just missing the key points. Also, the elimination of Elizabeth’s prejudice to Darcy and her growth to maturity were accomplished by the completing of the missing information. Wickham was originally the late housekeeper’s son and was loved by Darcy’s father since an early age. In Old Darcy’s will, he arranged a decent job for Wickham. However, under the pretext of studying law, he gave up teaching and got a 3000-pound settlement. Then, Wickham broke off relation with the Darcy’s’. Later, to get Miss Darcy’s property, Wickham attempted to elope with her. Because he took revenge to Darcy secretly, it is difficult to let other people see his real purpose. Outwardly, he is so handsome and polite, but under the gentle appearance, he harbored a dissolute, decadent, and shameless heart.
The author provides much food for the reader’s thought. Once Elizabeth found she was cheated, she did not let Wickham get away. She exposed Wickham without batting an eyelash and used the quantity maxim through the same approach and the same polite language.
In chapter 52, we can have a better understanding of the quantity maxim by way of the dialogue between Wickham and Elizabeth. Below is a detailed conversation between Elizabeth (E) and Wickham (W).
W: You saw the old housekeeper, I suppose? But of course she did not mention my name?
E: Yes, she did.
E: Indeed!
W: I hope she will turn out well.
E: I dare say she will; she has got over the trying age.
Elizabeth’s last sentence“she has got over the trying age”was obvious to imply the issue of Miss Darcy’s abduction by Wickham. Whatever Elizabeth speaks in a roundabout way, Wickham keeps talking in a normal way. Elizabeth has already known Wickham’s great villainy and moral defects. She mentioned Miss Darcy on purpose, who is seduced by Wickham at “the trying age”. Wickham violate the quantity maxim to escape from the embarrassing position. Because he screened himself with a solid shield---he never tells a lie, as he repeatedly said to Elizabeth:“Yes, there was something in that; I told you so from the first, you may remember.” “And it was not wholly without foundation. You may remember what I told you on that point; when first we talk of it.”
The following dialogue appears in chapter 3. It was the first time when Darcy and Elizabeth meet each other.
“Oh, she is the most beautiful creature I have ever seen!”
“Which do you mean?” (Jane Austen 15)
Bingley was extremely fascinated by Jane’s beauty and sang high praise for her. “She is the most beautiful creature I have ever seen” delivers the meaning that his admiration not only violates the Quantity maxim but also the Quality Maxim.
Now let’s turn to Elizabeth and see how she talks with Lady Catherine.
“Upon my word,” “You give your opinion very decidedly for so young a person. Pray, what is your age?”
“With three younger sisters’ grown up,” “Your Ladyship can hardly expect me to own it.”
Elizabeth’s reply violates the quantity maxim. She did not give a direct response. Her words shocked Lady Catherine. People who talk to her always submit to her will. How a young lady like Elizabeth dare to retort! Then Elizabeth’s character stands vividly on the paper.(Song Zhenqin 25)
Chapter 3 A pragmatic analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice from the perspective of quality maxim
3.1 The meaning of quality maxim
Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
(1) Do not say what you believe to be false
(2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
A:Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
B:I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B is not having any class that will prevent him from going for the picnic. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality. His implied message is “I do not want to join you for the picnic on Sunday.” (He Zhaoxiong 93)
3.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of quality maxim
At the very beginning of the novel, “it is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.” This sentence violates the quality maxim. Few people including the author will admit it a universally acknowledged truth.
“Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune, four or five thousand pounds a year. What a fine thing for our girls! ”
“How so? How can it affect them?”
“My dear Mr. Bennet,” “how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them.” (Jane Austen 6)
Obviously, Mr. Bennnet violates the quality maxim. That is to say something he himself does not think it is true. It was even as Mrs. Bennet said: Mr. Bennet must know his wife was considering one of their daughters’ marrying to the wealthy man. While he pretend not to understand what his wife has said, he reminded his wife do not always live in a world of fantasy. He criticizes that Mr. Bennet will get her daughters married to any rich man.
If we say Elizabeth takes no notice of Darcy’s love, her rival, Miss Bingley is much more sensitive to it. Therefore, she would in no wise give up any chances to have a tilt at Elizabeth—especially her low origin. When answering Miss Bingley, Darcy said he was buried in meditation for Elizabeth’s beautiful eyes. Miss Bingley said immediately:“you will have a charming mother-in-law, indeed, and of course she will be always at Pemberley with you.” Here, Darcy just talk about Elizabeth’s eyes, Miss Bingley said Elizabeth’s mother was Darcy’s “mother-in-law”. This is clearly contrary to the facts. But the indirect speech act, in a higher level, is an irony and warning to Darcy. The implication is that if Darcy fall in love with Elizabeth, he will have to accept such a vulgar and uneducated mother-in-law to live together. Indeed, this is Darcy’s anxiety. Miss Bingley violates the quality maxim and inflicts the groundless associations on Darcy. It seems absurd. On the contrary, just such an absurdity plays an important role in warning Darcy’s behavior. Although Darcy is reluctant to admit to the fact, later he had to persuade Mr.Bingley to leave Netherfield with him and forced himself to cut off the initation of love for Elizabeth. If Miss Bingley was not in deep love with Darcy, how can she see it sharply?
The other example is,Wickham eloped Elizabeth’s little sister Lideya. Darcy interposed himself between them and forces Wickham marry Lideya. Then, Lideya’s reputation was saved. When the family celebrated the occasion, Mr.Bennet said a word about him, “He is as fine a follow as ever I saw. He simpers and smirks and makes love to us all. I am prodigiously proud of him. I defy even Sir William Lucas himself to produce a more valuable son-in-law.”Here, Mr. Bennet employ 3 verbs“simpers”“smirks”“makes love to us all” in this sentence to denounce William.
Immediately after that, he violates the quality maxim. And he said of all the men whom he had ever seen, Wickham were far and away the best. Also, he was proud of Wickham. The fact is that everyone knows: Mr. Bennet has never had a good impression on Kolings and firmly objected his daughter to marry Kolings. Now, Mr. Bennet unexpectedly speaks well of that the shameless Wickham was better than Kolings. It is clear that he violates the quality maxim. What he said must be related with the context. When the whole family and the neighbors were immersed in a celebrating atmosphere, how can he express his discontent? Moreover, such a scum was bought to do his son-in-law through the money given by Darcy. Lacking of discipline to his daughter led to the embarrassment, so Mr. Bennet had to employ black humor alike to express his self-mockery when facing the embrassing occasion which was brought by fate. The festive atmosphere was only apparent. Mr. Bennet was trapped into a deep gloom.
In chapter 19, let’s see Kolings’ proposal to Elizabeth.
“I am not now to learn,” “that it is usual with young ladies to reject the addresses of the man whom they secretly mean to accept, when he first applies for their favor. Sometimes the refusal is repeated a second or even a third time. I am therefore by no means discouraged by what you have just said. ”
Kolings had thought Elizabeth would promise to marry him according to his status. To his surprise, he received a refusal. Faced with Elizabeth’s refusal and regaining his face, he said: when a young lady confronted a proposal, she would verbally reject and even lasted 2 or 3 times. Kolings thought Elizabeth’s refusal was not serious and she was following the example of the noble lady to win his deep love. In actual fact, the refusal was a certainty. Kolings talked in this way was to avoid losing face. Till now, his words had already violated the quality maxim.
Chapter 4 A pragmatic analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice from the perspective of relation maxim and manner maxim
4.1 Relation maxim theory
4.1.1 The meaning of relation maxim
Make your contribution relevant
Example1
A: Have you seen Mary today?
B: I’m going home.
In here, what B said could show his dislike to Mary.(Ran Yongping 57)
Example 2
A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
B: We had a basketball match with the other class and we beat them.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to tell A how well or how poorly he did in the math exam. B’s response is thus totally irrelevant to A’s question. Therefore he is flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature is “I don’t wish to talk about the exam.” (He Zhaoxiong 93)
4.1.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of relation maxim
In chapter 2, when Mr. Bennet talk round for searching the optimum effect to announce his visit to Mr.Benley, what his wife said is an excellent example of violating the relation maxim.
Here, the families sit together and talk about the possibility to see Mr.Bingley in participating their neighbors’’ party. It seems that Mrs.Bennet’s scold to his daughter has no relation with what they were talking about and violate relation maxim. In reality, the conversation goes on as usual and the cooperative principle was abided by in deep level, because Mr.Bennet understood the implied meaning. So he said: “Kitty has no discretion in her coughs. She times them ill.” It follows then he must understand that his wife was angry with him. She grumbled about he did not pay a visit to Mr.Bingley for their daughter’s marriage. Thus, she vented her anger on her daughters while she continued to evoke her husband’s sympathy.
“Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance”
“You make me laugh, Charlotte; but it is not sound. You know it is not sound, and that you would never act in this way yourself.” (Jane Austen 28)
When Charlotte Lucas hammers in her view on love, Elizabeth gave her point of view: “You make me laugh, Charlotte; but it is not sound. You know it is not sound, and that you would never act in this way yourself.” Elizabeth’s statement violates relation maxim. She did not give a direct answer and “You make me laugh” manifests her different view on marriage.
In the third volume chapter 14, after sitting for a moment in silence, she said very stiffly to Elizabeth,
“I hope you are well, Miss Bennet. That lady, I suppose, is your mother,”
“And that I suppose is one of your sisters.”
“Yes, Madam,” “she is my youngest girl now but one. My youngest of all is lately married, and my eldest is somewhere about the grounds, walking with a young man who, I believe, will soon become a part of the family.”
“You have a very small park here,” returned Lady Catherine after a short silence. (Jane Austen 405)
When Mrs. Bennnet shows off her other two daughters and their marriage, Lady Catherine made no reply instead saying “You have a very small park here”. It seems that what she said had no relation with the conversation.She deliberately violates the relation maxim to express her dislike what Mrs. Bennnet had said and also her scorn to Mrs. Bennnet’s low economic status.
4.2 Manner maxim theory
4.2.1 The meaning of manner maxim
Be perspicuous, and specifically:
(1) Avoid obscurity
(2) Avoid ambiguity
(3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
Here comes an example:
A: Shall we get something for the kids?
B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. B’s utterance has the implicature that “I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about getting them some ice-cream.”(He Zhaoxiong 93-94)
4.2.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of manner maxim
Example 1
“My dear, Mr. Bennet,” “have you heard that Netherfield Park will soon be occupied at last?”
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.
“But it is,” “for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it.”
Mr. Bennet made no answer.
“Do not you want to know who has taken it?”
“You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.” (Jane Austen 5)
For Mrs. Bennet’s question, the usual answer should be “yes” or “no”. However, Mr. Bennet gives a redundant one. The manner maxim requires brevity. What he said violates the manner maxim. His words mean that he had no interest in the topic.(Xu Xiaoying 2009)
Example 2
The author depicted that Kolings was always on too many frills to show his mediocre and display his stupidity through his wordy performance. When mentioned Mrs. Catherine, he would praise her noble lineage and kind as well as the care to him. Kolings’ proposal to Elizabeth is a vivid portrayal of his personality. As mentioned the 3 reasons for marriage:
First, I think it a right thing for every clergyman in easy circumstances (like myself) to set the example of matrimony in his Parish. Second, that I am convinced it will add very greatly to my happiness; and thirdly, which perhaps I ought to …it is the particular advice and recommendation of the very noble lady whom I have honors of calling patroness. (Jane Austen 124)
A man wants to marry bur for reasons, the idea itself was stupid enough. In addition to the first reason, he said his marriage was to set an example for the parish. His purpose was to raise his career, but instead make a deceptive show of his strength and full of conceit. His second reason is increasing his feeling of happiness. It is absolutely redundant. Nobody in the world wants to marry in order to increase his suffer. This point does not add new information to the topic. It violates the manner maxim. The article three means to show off his relationship with the wealthy lady. He was under the banner of tiger and betrayed his own slavish, long-winded and stupid face. At this time, the laugh was ridicule other’s defects and the outpouring of his self-superiority.
Chapter 5 Conclusion
This thesis is an interdisciplinary study of linguistics and literature. The thesis tries to adopt the Cooperative Principle Approach to the analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice. It is an attempt to employ pragmatics to analyze literary works. This study is just set within theoretical framework of Cooperative Principle, which is concerned with maxims. The conversations between key characters have been chosen as data for an in-depth analysis in this thesis.
With different linguistic and social-cultural background, only by fully understanding and accurately capturing the implied meaning can we understand the dialogue. Dialogue plays an important role in this story. Through the analysis above, we can see the conflict and appreciate the novel and the plot as well. By exploring how the maxims are violated, the thesis tried to reveal or demonstrate the hidden intention of a character and the implied meaning of the dialogue. Then there comes the conversational implicature.
In the detailed study of their conversations, it is found that the author made the reader come to understand the delicate relationship between key figures and the comic atmosphere by means of letting the figure’s dialogue violate the four maxims to produce the pragmatic effect. In this way, the characters’ lively personalities come out. Then the readers themselves would derive pleasure, enlightment, wisdom and thought of human nature from the context.
The analysis of the conversations has helped to reveal Jane Austen’s language features and also may help the audience enjoy the novel as well as establish the stable and harmonious relationship in real human interaction. Meanwhile, the approach to employ pragmatics to interpret English novel is an example for the future study.
The thesis is only an attempt to use theories of Cooperative Principle for the analysis of literary works. Owing to my practical ability, only the conversations of some characters have been selected for in-depth analysis. Using linguistic theories to analyze literary works has become a new trend.
References
[1] Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with Words [M]. Oxford, UK, Clarendon Press,1962
[2] Blackmore, D. Understanding Utterance: An Introduction to Pragmatics [M]. Oxford, UK: Blackwell
【Key words】 Pragmatic analysis; Pride and Prejudice; Cooperative Principle
【中图分类号】G251 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】1001-4128(2010)10-0097-05
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 A brief introduction to the thesis
1.1.1 A brief introduction to the author
Jane Austen is a remarkable woman writer in the 19th century English literature. Her representative work—Pride and Prejudice has been enjoying enormous popularity since its publication. She is regarded as one of the masters of the English novel for her unique talent in bringing the small society she knew so well real to life in her vivid and witty language.
1.1.2 The greatness existing in her description of the language
Compared to Jane Austen’s other works, Pride and Prejudice is much lighter, brighter, more sparkling, and more competent. In this novel, she deliberately violates the Cooperative Principle. Meanwhile, we can see she is a master of driving the language. Through the thesis, we will have a better understanding of her language.
1.1.3 The method used in the thesis and a guide to the paper
Not many analyses have been done on Pride and Prejudice based on the cooperative principle before my thesis. Attention has only been given to the historical background of the author or the cultural study of the novel instead of its linguistic features. Nevertheless, the text emphasizes the using of the cooperative principle to analysis her language.
The thesis consists of five chapters inclusive of the introduction and the conclusion. Chapter II is from the perspective of quantity maxim. It gives an exact definition of the quantity maxim. And examples are quoted to testify the necessity of violating maxims when it is necessary. For example, Austen portrays Wickham’s impudence by letting him revenge Darcy through violating the maxim of quantity. In this way, Wickham’s personalities come out vividly. Chapter III is based on the perspective of quality maxim. From the analysis, we can see Mr. Bennet and Mrs. Bennet’s totally different characters. Chapter IV is from the perspective of relation maxim and manner maxim
This thesis would be significant for future studies in that it provides a new angle for appreciating novel. It is hoped that this paper will enrich the application of theories of the Cooperative Principle analysis to novels.
1.2 Grice’s Cooperative Principle
1.2.1 The Definition of the Cooperative Principle
The Cooperative Principle is a principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is that one is supposed to make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged. To be more specific, there are four maxims in this general principle: the Maxim of Quantity, the Maxim of Quality, the Maxim of Relation, the Maxim of Manner. (Gao Wencheng182)
According to Grice, participants of the conversation should be cooperative in the course of exchange of their talk and abide by the rules mentioned above.
However, in reality, people more often than not tend to violate and flout the maxims of the Cooperative Principle, deliberately or unintentionally, which result in implicatures. This applies to fictional dialogues. A successful communication consists of a series of interconnected utterances and it is the joint efforts of all the interlocutors. One of the major pragmatic principles most frequently used in analyzing fictional dialogues is the cooperative principle first put forward by H.P. Grice at the William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1967, and later developed in Logic and Conversation in 1975. He suggests that communication is guided by a set of rational, universal principles and sub-principles (called maxims) that underlie people’s efficient and effective use of language in conversation to further co-operative ends.(Xu Xiaoying 12)
The cooperative principle (abbreviated as CP) runs as follows: Make your contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. (He Zhaoxiong 92) To be more specific, there are four maxims in this general principle:the Maxim of Quantity, the Maxim of Quality, the Maxim of Relation, the Maxim of Manner.
A common aim or purpose should be followed throughout the communication to assure a successful conversation. Both the speaker(s) and the hearer(s) should have tacit agreement that they should abide by the cooperative principle as some kind of laws in communication. Simply speaking, we should say what we have to say at the right time and in the right way as well as break some of the rules to achieve both conversational and written effect.
1.2.2 The four conversational maxims
The Maxim of Quantity: The maxim of quantity is concerned with the amount of information to be provided by an utterance, and under it fall the following maxims. The Maxim of Quality: The maxim of quality is concerned with truth telling, and has two parts. The Maxim of Relation: The maxim of relation is very simple. The Maxim of Manner: The maxim of manner has four parts.
In short, speakers are supposed to comply with the maxims in order to converse in an efficient, rational, cooperative way: they should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly, while providing sufficient information. (Levinson102)
Chapter 2 A pragmatic analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice from the perspective of quantity maxim
2.1 The meaning of quantity maxim
(1) Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange
(2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required
Look at the following examples:
Example 1
A: Is the exam difficult?
B: Not very actually. My mother teaches me to play the piano on the weekends, and father cooks for us. (Ran Yongping 57)
In the above example, the information B offered surpasses what A wants to know, so it violates the quantity maxim.
Example 2
A: When is Susan’s farewell party?
B: Sometime next month.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B knows exactly when Susan is going to give her farewell party. Thus B is withholding some of the information required at this stage of conversation and is thus flouting the maxim of quantity. The implicature that results is “I do not wish to tell you when the party is going to be held.” (He Zhaoxiong 93)
2.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of quantity maxim
The key conflict between the hero and heroin lies in Elizabeth’s prejudice against Darcy. There is no doubt that the bias is caused by the latter's arrogance. But to a large extent, it is Elizabeth who is credulous of Wickham’s slander to Darcy. The approach which Wickham used is telling the truth—just missing the key points. Also, the elimination of Elizabeth’s prejudice to Darcy and her growth to maturity were accomplished by the completing of the missing information. Wickham was originally the late housekeeper’s son and was loved by Darcy’s father since an early age. In Old Darcy’s will, he arranged a decent job for Wickham. However, under the pretext of studying law, he gave up teaching and got a 3000-pound settlement. Then, Wickham broke off relation with the Darcy’s’. Later, to get Miss Darcy’s property, Wickham attempted to elope with her. Because he took revenge to Darcy secretly, it is difficult to let other people see his real purpose. Outwardly, he is so handsome and polite, but under the gentle appearance, he harbored a dissolute, decadent, and shameless heart.
The author provides much food for the reader’s thought. Once Elizabeth found she was cheated, she did not let Wickham get away. She exposed Wickham without batting an eyelash and used the quantity maxim through the same approach and the same polite language.
In chapter 52, we can have a better understanding of the quantity maxim by way of the dialogue between Wickham and Elizabeth. Below is a detailed conversation between Elizabeth (E) and Wickham (W).
W: You saw the old housekeeper, I suppose? But of course she did not mention my name?
E: Yes, she did.
E: Indeed!
W: I hope she will turn out well.
E: I dare say she will; she has got over the trying age.
Elizabeth’s last sentence“she has got over the trying age”was obvious to imply the issue of Miss Darcy’s abduction by Wickham. Whatever Elizabeth speaks in a roundabout way, Wickham keeps talking in a normal way. Elizabeth has already known Wickham’s great villainy and moral defects. She mentioned Miss Darcy on purpose, who is seduced by Wickham at “the trying age”. Wickham violate the quantity maxim to escape from the embarrassing position. Because he screened himself with a solid shield---he never tells a lie, as he repeatedly said to Elizabeth:“Yes, there was something in that; I told you so from the first, you may remember.” “And it was not wholly without foundation. You may remember what I told you on that point; when first we talk of it.”
The following dialogue appears in chapter 3. It was the first time when Darcy and Elizabeth meet each other.
“Oh, she is the most beautiful creature I have ever seen!”
“Which do you mean?” (Jane Austen 15)
Bingley was extremely fascinated by Jane’s beauty and sang high praise for her. “She is the most beautiful creature I have ever seen” delivers the meaning that his admiration not only violates the Quantity maxim but also the Quality Maxim.
Now let’s turn to Elizabeth and see how she talks with Lady Catherine.
“Upon my word,” “You give your opinion very decidedly for so young a person. Pray, what is your age?”
“With three younger sisters’ grown up,” “Your Ladyship can hardly expect me to own it.”
Elizabeth’s reply violates the quantity maxim. She did not give a direct response. Her words shocked Lady Catherine. People who talk to her always submit to her will. How a young lady like Elizabeth dare to retort! Then Elizabeth’s character stands vividly on the paper.(Song Zhenqin 25)
Chapter 3 A pragmatic analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice from the perspective of quality maxim
3.1 The meaning of quality maxim
Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
(1) Do not say what you believe to be false
(2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
A:Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
B:I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B is not having any class that will prevent him from going for the picnic. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and is flouting the maxim of quality. His implied message is “I do not want to join you for the picnic on Sunday.” (He Zhaoxiong 93)
3.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of quality maxim
At the very beginning of the novel, “it is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.” This sentence violates the quality maxim. Few people including the author will admit it a universally acknowledged truth.
“Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune, four or five thousand pounds a year. What a fine thing for our girls! ”
“How so? How can it affect them?”
“My dear Mr. Bennet,” “how can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them.” (Jane Austen 6)
Obviously, Mr. Bennnet violates the quality maxim. That is to say something he himself does not think it is true. It was even as Mrs. Bennet said: Mr. Bennet must know his wife was considering one of their daughters’ marrying to the wealthy man. While he pretend not to understand what his wife has said, he reminded his wife do not always live in a world of fantasy. He criticizes that Mr. Bennet will get her daughters married to any rich man.
If we say Elizabeth takes no notice of Darcy’s love, her rival, Miss Bingley is much more sensitive to it. Therefore, she would in no wise give up any chances to have a tilt at Elizabeth—especially her low origin. When answering Miss Bingley, Darcy said he was buried in meditation for Elizabeth’s beautiful eyes. Miss Bingley said immediately:“you will have a charming mother-in-law, indeed, and of course she will be always at Pemberley with you.” Here, Darcy just talk about Elizabeth’s eyes, Miss Bingley said Elizabeth’s mother was Darcy’s “mother-in-law”. This is clearly contrary to the facts. But the indirect speech act, in a higher level, is an irony and warning to Darcy. The implication is that if Darcy fall in love with Elizabeth, he will have to accept such a vulgar and uneducated mother-in-law to live together. Indeed, this is Darcy’s anxiety. Miss Bingley violates the quality maxim and inflicts the groundless associations on Darcy. It seems absurd. On the contrary, just such an absurdity plays an important role in warning Darcy’s behavior. Although Darcy is reluctant to admit to the fact, later he had to persuade Mr.Bingley to leave Netherfield with him and forced himself to cut off the initation of love for Elizabeth. If Miss Bingley was not in deep love with Darcy, how can she see it sharply?
The other example is,Wickham eloped Elizabeth’s little sister Lideya. Darcy interposed himself between them and forces Wickham marry Lideya. Then, Lideya’s reputation was saved. When the family celebrated the occasion, Mr.Bennet said a word about him, “He is as fine a follow as ever I saw. He simpers and smirks and makes love to us all. I am prodigiously proud of him. I defy even Sir William Lucas himself to produce a more valuable son-in-law.”Here, Mr. Bennet employ 3 verbs“simpers”“smirks”“makes love to us all” in this sentence to denounce William.
Immediately after that, he violates the quality maxim. And he said of all the men whom he had ever seen, Wickham were far and away the best. Also, he was proud of Wickham. The fact is that everyone knows: Mr. Bennet has never had a good impression on Kolings and firmly objected his daughter to marry Kolings. Now, Mr. Bennet unexpectedly speaks well of that the shameless Wickham was better than Kolings. It is clear that he violates the quality maxim. What he said must be related with the context. When the whole family and the neighbors were immersed in a celebrating atmosphere, how can he express his discontent? Moreover, such a scum was bought to do his son-in-law through the money given by Darcy. Lacking of discipline to his daughter led to the embarrassment, so Mr. Bennet had to employ black humor alike to express his self-mockery when facing the embrassing occasion which was brought by fate. The festive atmosphere was only apparent. Mr. Bennet was trapped into a deep gloom.
In chapter 19, let’s see Kolings’ proposal to Elizabeth.
“I am not now to learn,” “that it is usual with young ladies to reject the addresses of the man whom they secretly mean to accept, when he first applies for their favor. Sometimes the refusal is repeated a second or even a third time. I am therefore by no means discouraged by what you have just said. ”
Kolings had thought Elizabeth would promise to marry him according to his status. To his surprise, he received a refusal. Faced with Elizabeth’s refusal and regaining his face, he said: when a young lady confronted a proposal, she would verbally reject and even lasted 2 or 3 times. Kolings thought Elizabeth’s refusal was not serious and she was following the example of the noble lady to win his deep love. In actual fact, the refusal was a certainty. Kolings talked in this way was to avoid losing face. Till now, his words had already violated the quality maxim.
Chapter 4 A pragmatic analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice from the perspective of relation maxim and manner maxim
4.1 Relation maxim theory
4.1.1 The meaning of relation maxim
Make your contribution relevant
Example1
A: Have you seen Mary today?
B: I’m going home.
In here, what B said could show his dislike to Mary.(Ran Yongping 57)
Example 2
A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
B: We had a basketball match with the other class and we beat them.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to tell A how well or how poorly he did in the math exam. B’s response is thus totally irrelevant to A’s question. Therefore he is flouting the maxim of relation. The implicature is “I don’t wish to talk about the exam.” (He Zhaoxiong 93)
4.1.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of relation maxim
In chapter 2, when Mr. Bennet talk round for searching the optimum effect to announce his visit to Mr.Benley, what his wife said is an excellent example of violating the relation maxim.
Here, the families sit together and talk about the possibility to see Mr.Bingley in participating their neighbors’’ party. It seems that Mrs.Bennet’s scold to his daughter has no relation with what they were talking about and violate relation maxim. In reality, the conversation goes on as usual and the cooperative principle was abided by in deep level, because Mr.Bennet understood the implied meaning. So he said: “Kitty has no discretion in her coughs. She times them ill.” It follows then he must understand that his wife was angry with him. She grumbled about he did not pay a visit to Mr.Bingley for their daughter’s marriage. Thus, she vented her anger on her daughters while she continued to evoke her husband’s sympathy.
“Happiness in marriage is entirely a matter of chance”
“You make me laugh, Charlotte; but it is not sound. You know it is not sound, and that you would never act in this way yourself.” (Jane Austen 28)
When Charlotte Lucas hammers in her view on love, Elizabeth gave her point of view: “You make me laugh, Charlotte; but it is not sound. You know it is not sound, and that you would never act in this way yourself.” Elizabeth’s statement violates relation maxim. She did not give a direct answer and “You make me laugh” manifests her different view on marriage.
In the third volume chapter 14, after sitting for a moment in silence, she said very stiffly to Elizabeth,
“I hope you are well, Miss Bennet. That lady, I suppose, is your mother,”
“And that I suppose is one of your sisters.”
“Yes, Madam,” “she is my youngest girl now but one. My youngest of all is lately married, and my eldest is somewhere about the grounds, walking with a young man who, I believe, will soon become a part of the family.”
“You have a very small park here,” returned Lady Catherine after a short silence. (Jane Austen 405)
When Mrs. Bennnet shows off her other two daughters and their marriage, Lady Catherine made no reply instead saying “You have a very small park here”. It seems that what she said had no relation with the conversation.She deliberately violates the relation maxim to express her dislike what Mrs. Bennnet had said and also her scorn to Mrs. Bennnet’s low economic status.
4.2 Manner maxim theory
4.2.1 The meaning of manner maxim
Be perspicuous, and specifically:
(1) Avoid obscurity
(2) Avoid ambiguity
(3) Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity)
Here comes an example:
A: Shall we get something for the kids?
B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. B’s utterance has the implicature that “I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about getting them some ice-cream.”(He Zhaoxiong 93-94)
4.2.2 Conversational implicature produced by violation of manner maxim
Example 1
“My dear, Mr. Bennet,” “have you heard that Netherfield Park will soon be occupied at last?”
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.
“But it is,” “for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it.”
Mr. Bennet made no answer.
“Do not you want to know who has taken it?”
“You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it.” (Jane Austen 5)
For Mrs. Bennet’s question, the usual answer should be “yes” or “no”. However, Mr. Bennet gives a redundant one. The manner maxim requires brevity. What he said violates the manner maxim. His words mean that he had no interest in the topic.(Xu Xiaoying 2009)
Example 2
The author depicted that Kolings was always on too many frills to show his mediocre and display his stupidity through his wordy performance. When mentioned Mrs. Catherine, he would praise her noble lineage and kind as well as the care to him. Kolings’ proposal to Elizabeth is a vivid portrayal of his personality. As mentioned the 3 reasons for marriage:
First, I think it a right thing for every clergyman in easy circumstances (like myself) to set the example of matrimony in his Parish. Second, that I am convinced it will add very greatly to my happiness; and thirdly, which perhaps I ought to …it is the particular advice and recommendation of the very noble lady whom I have honors of calling patroness. (Jane Austen 124)
A man wants to marry bur for reasons, the idea itself was stupid enough. In addition to the first reason, he said his marriage was to set an example for the parish. His purpose was to raise his career, but instead make a deceptive show of his strength and full of conceit. His second reason is increasing his feeling of happiness. It is absolutely redundant. Nobody in the world wants to marry in order to increase his suffer. This point does not add new information to the topic. It violates the manner maxim. The article three means to show off his relationship with the wealthy lady. He was under the banner of tiger and betrayed his own slavish, long-winded and stupid face. At this time, the laugh was ridicule other’s defects and the outpouring of his self-superiority.
Chapter 5 Conclusion
This thesis is an interdisciplinary study of linguistics and literature. The thesis tries to adopt the Cooperative Principle Approach to the analysis of the dialogues in Pride and Prejudice. It is an attempt to employ pragmatics to analyze literary works. This study is just set within theoretical framework of Cooperative Principle, which is concerned with maxims. The conversations between key characters have been chosen as data for an in-depth analysis in this thesis.
With different linguistic and social-cultural background, only by fully understanding and accurately capturing the implied meaning can we understand the dialogue. Dialogue plays an important role in this story. Through the analysis above, we can see the conflict and appreciate the novel and the plot as well. By exploring how the maxims are violated, the thesis tried to reveal or demonstrate the hidden intention of a character and the implied meaning of the dialogue. Then there comes the conversational implicature.
In the detailed study of their conversations, it is found that the author made the reader come to understand the delicate relationship between key figures and the comic atmosphere by means of letting the figure’s dialogue violate the four maxims to produce the pragmatic effect. In this way, the characters’ lively personalities come out. Then the readers themselves would derive pleasure, enlightment, wisdom and thought of human nature from the context.
The analysis of the conversations has helped to reveal Jane Austen’s language features and also may help the audience enjoy the novel as well as establish the stable and harmonious relationship in real human interaction. Meanwhile, the approach to employ pragmatics to interpret English novel is an example for the future study.
The thesis is only an attempt to use theories of Cooperative Principle for the analysis of literary works. Owing to my practical ability, only the conversations of some characters have been selected for in-depth analysis. Using linguistic theories to analyze literary works has become a new trend.
References
[1] Austin, J. L. How to Do Things with Words [M]. Oxford, UK, Clarendon Press,1962
[2] Blackmore, D. Understanding Utterance: An Introduction to Pragmatics [M]. Oxford, UK: Blackwell