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摘要:美国语言学家Grice提出的会话含义理论是语用学中的重要理论,对大学英语听力教学有非常重要的指导作用。本文阐述了会话的合作原则和礼貌原则的遵守和违背产生的会话含义,以及对大学英语四级听力短对话中推理习题的指导意义。
关键词:合作原则 礼貌原则 会话含义 违背 遵守
1 会话的合作原则及会话含义的产生
在人们日常的交往中,大部分交际是以口头方式进行的,交谈是传递信息和获得信息的一种重要的交际方式。能称得上一次成功交谈的语言活动,不会是由一系列不相干的话语组成,美国哲学家Grice认为,在所有的语言交际活动中为了达到特定的目标,说话人和听话人之间存在着一种默契,一种双方都应该遵守的原则,他称这种原则为会话的合作原则(Cooperative Principle, 简称CP)。只有在合作的前提之下,话语交谈才能继续下去,语言交际的功能才能实现。合作原则这条基本原则可以具体体现为四条准则:
1.数量准则(Quantity maxim)
(1)使自己所说的话达到(交谈的现时目的)所要求的详尽程度;
(2)不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更为详尽。
2.质量准则(Quality maxim)
(1)不要说自己认为是不真实的话;
(2)不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。
3.关联准则(Relation maxim)
说话要贴切。
4.方式准则(Manner maxim)
(1)避免晦涩的词语;
(2)避免歧义;
(3)说话要简要(避免赘述);
(4)说话要有条理。
如果在交谈时人人都能严格遵守这四条准则,那么他们就能进行最高效、最合理的语言交际。但是,Grice指出,在实际交际中人们并不是都严格遵守这些准则的。当说话人公然不遵守一条准则,同时还让听话人知道自己违背了一条准则。Grice称此为对准则的“蔑视”,根据合作的大前提,听话人会去推理说话人传递的符合合作原则的信息,于是就产生了“会话含义”的理论。正是在此基础上说话人才有可能表达含蓄的意义。
2 会话的礼貌原则
合作原则解释了话语的字面意义和它的实际意义之间的关系,解释了会话含义是怎样产生和理解的,但没有解释人们为什么要违反会话准则来含蓄、间接的表达自己。在不少情况下,人们这样做是出于礼貌的考虑。礼貌是人类文明的标志,是人类社会活动的一条重要准绳。作为一种社会活动,语言活动同样受到这条准绳的约束。和合作原则一样,礼貌原则也可以体现在一些准则上。下面是Leech提出的礼貌准则:
1.策略准则(用于指令和承诺)
(a)使他人受损最小,(b)使他人受惠最大
2.宽宏准则(用于指令和承诺)
(a)使自身受惠最小,(b)使自身受损最大
3.赞扬准则(用于表情和表述)
(a)尽力缩小对他人的贬损,(b)尽力夸大对他人的赞扬
4.谦虚准则(用于表情和表述)
(a)尽力缩小对自身的赞扬,(b)尽力夸大对自身的贬损
5.赞同准则(用于表述)
(a)尽力缩小自身和他人之间的分歧,(b)尽力夸大自身和他人之间的一致
6.同情准则(用于表述)
(a)尽力缩小自身对他人的厌恶,(b)尽力夸大自身对他人的同情
3 合作原则与礼貌原则
合作原则和礼貌原则同属于人际修辞的范围。“修辞”是指在交际中有效的利用语言。会话的合作原则在会话中起着调节说话内容的作用,它使说话人在假设对方乐于合作的前提下进行交际。而礼貌原则具有更高一层的调节作用,它维护了交谈双方的均等地位和他们之间的友好关系。为了维护礼貌原则,人们可以牺牲合作原则下的准则。在有些情况下,人们对合作原则的考虑高于对礼貌原则的考虑,在这样的交际中人们把信息的交流看作高于一切。
4 对话中合作原则与礼貌原则分析
会话含义无疑是间接语言的一种重要表现。在会话交际中,含义(implication)的理解是一个十分关键的方面,通常体现讲话者交际意图的主要特征。大学英语四级考试听力短对话正是根据语言交际的这一语用原理来设置,重点考察我们学生语言运用能力,培养实际生活中的语言交际能力。这也是我们大学英语培养学生英语能力的一项重要目标。下面通过对历年四级听力试题中部分短对话的分析来了解一下人们是怎样在交际中有效的利用语言来实现自己的交际目的的。在做四级听力理解习题中又该怎样利用这一语言现象来更好的理解题目,提高听力水平。
例1. M: What a boring speaker! I can hardly stay awake.
W: Well, I don't know. In fact, I think it's been a long time since I've heard anyone is good.
Q: What do we learn from the conversation?
A.The woman has known the speaker for a long time.
B.The woman has difficulty understanding the lecture.
C.The man is making a fuss about nothing.
D.The woman thinks highly about the speaker. (CET-4 2011) 对话中男士对演讲很不满,觉得非常的乏味。女士在回应的过程中的“Well, I don't know.”表达了与男士观点的不同,没有遵守会话礼貌原则中的赞同准则,是为了遵守合作原则中的质量准则,传达自己的真实想法,她觉得演讲者是她长久以来听到的最好的了。该题中女士对合作原则的考虑高于了礼貌原则。
例2. M: Do you think I could borrow your car to go grocery shopping? The supermarkets outside the city are so much cheaper. I’d also be happy to pick up anything you need.
W: Well, I don’t like to let anyone else drive my car. Tell you what, why don’t we go together?
Q: What does the woman mean?
A.She will drive the man to the market.
B.The man should buy a car of his own.
C.The man needn’t go shopping every week.
D.She can pick the man up at the grocery shop.(CET-4 2010)
对话中男士向女士借车,女士遵循了合作原则中的质量原则表达了自己不喜欢别人开自己的车的想法,但这一表达违背了礼貌原则,女士主动提出和男士一起去超市,这一表达违背了合作原则中的数量原则,答案为A选项,而B选项完全不符合会话的礼貌原则,容易引起矛盾和冲突。本对话中合作原则与礼貌原则互为退让,做好分析有助于正确理解对话,选出正确答案。
例3. W: You’re taking a course with Professor Johnson. What’s your impression so far?
M: Well, many students could hardly stay awake in his class without first drinking a cup of coffee.
Q: What does the man imply?
A.Few students understand Pro. Johnson’s lectures.
B.Few students meet Pro. Johnson’s requirements.
C.Many students find Pro. Johnson’s lectures boring.
D.Many students have dropped Pro. Johnson’s class.(CET-4 2010)
对话中男士出于礼貌的考虑没有直接表达对Professor Johnson上课的感受,而是借用了同学们的表现间接的说明Professor Johnson上课很无聊,大家上他的课都想睡觉。因此他违背了合作原则的关联准则。
例4. W: I need to talk to someone who knows Baltimore well. I’m told you lived there.
M: Oh, but I was really young at the time.
Q: What does the man mean?
A.He moved to Baltimore when he was young.
B.He can provide very little useful information.
C.He will show the woman around Baltimore.
D.He will ask someone else to help the woman. (CET-4 2009)
对话中女士遵循了礼貌原则中的策略准则,在对别人做出请求的时候尽量做到了礼貌、委婉,省略了她的请求:“Can you tell me something about Baltimore?”而男士听出了她的言外之意,但事实上男士并不能为她提供他需要的信息,为了维护合作原则的质量准则,他违背了数量准则和关联准则,礼貌、婉转地表达了自己基本不能为她提供多少信息的真实情况。因此正确答案应为B,而A选项是干扰性比较大的选项很容易被考生错选,造成错选的原因就是男士的答语违背了数量原则,完整的句子应为I lived there when I was really young.
例5. W: Tony was awarded a medal for rescuing several families from the forest fire.
M: I really admire his courage.
Q: What do we learn about Tony from the conversation?
A.He was pleased to get the medal.
B.He was very courageous.
C.He used to be a firefighter.
D.He was accused of causing a fire.(CET-4 2009) 对话中男士的话语遵循了礼貌原则中的赞同准则,尽力缩小与他人之间的分歧。同时他违背了合作准则中的关联准则,出题者正是抓住了这一点设置了问题。
例6. W: You bought a pair of jeans yesterday, didn’t you? What are they like?
M: Oh, they are pretty much like my other ones, except with a larger waist. I guess I haven’t spent much time exercising lately.
Q: What can we infer from the conversation about the man?
A.He prefers to wear jeans with a larger waist.
B.He has been extremely busy recently.
C.He has gained some weight lately.
D.He enjoyed going shopping with Jane yesterday.(CET-4 2008)
对话中男士提供了比女士想要知道的更多的内容,没有遵守合作原则的数量准则,女士只是想要了解他新买牛仔裤的样子,他回答了问题跟以前的差不多,又给出了多余的信息,比之前的腰围要大,还外加了腰围大的原因。这一外加信息正好是该题问题的出处,男士用婉转的方式说出了自己最近还是增长了些体重。
例7. W: I really like those abstract paintings we saw yesterday. What do you think?
M: I guess it’s something I haven’t acquired a taste for yet.
Q: What does the man imply?
A.The woman possesses a nature for art.
B.Women have a better artistic taste than men.
C.He isn’t good at abstract thinking.
D.He doesn’t like abstract paintings. (CET-4 2008)
该题中男士的回答明显违背了合作原则中的方式准则,用了晦涩的语言以及容易产生歧义的回答来表达自己不喜欢抽象画的想法。但同时遵守了礼貌原则中的赞同准则和谦虚准则,“something I haven’t acquired a taste for yet”还没开始喜欢,日后可能会感兴趣,尽力的缩小了自身和他人之间的分歧,尽力夸大了对自身的贬损。ABC三个选项都有可能从男士的话语中推断,但根据合作原则,女士询问的是男士对抽象画的想法,最关联的应为答案D。
例8. W: You haven’t seen a blue notebook, have you? I hope I didn’t leave it in the reading room.
M: Did you check that pile of journals you’ve borrowed from the library the other day?
Q: What is the man trying to say to the woman?
A.She couldn’t have left her notebook in the library.
B.She may have put her notebook amid the journals.
C.She should have made careful notes while doing reading.
D.She shouldn’t have read his notes without his knowing it. (CET-4 2008)
对话中对女士的反问没有作回答而是又提出了一个问题,他明显没有遵守合作原则中的数量准则及关系准则,但是维护了质量准则,因为他对于情况并没有十分的把握,不能说没有把握的话。因此他的言外之意是:“你可能把笔记本夹放在杂志中了。”
例9. M: How about joining me for a cup of coffee?
W: I’d love to, but I’m exhausted. I was up till 3 this morning, writing a paper for my literature class.
Q: Why does the woman decline the man’s invitation?
A.She wants to get some sleep.
B.She needs time to write a paper.
C.She has a literature class to attend.
D.She is trouble by her sleep problem.(CET-4 2008)
该对话中女士违背了合作原则的质量准则,她说了谎,而且让男士知道她说了谎从而传递了她的言外之意,婉言谢绝了男士的邀请。这种情况在我们的日常生活中经常遇见,考生也比较容易理解,因此出题人从另一个角度来考察,也就是女孩在拒绝男孩邀请给出的理由同样违背了合作原则中的数量准则:“I was up till 3 this morning, writing a paper for my literature class.”后还应该有一句“So, I want to get some sleep.”也就是我们本题的答案了。 例10. M: I am going to New York next week, but the hotel I booked is really expensive.
W: Why book a hotel? My brother has 2 spare rooms in his apartment.
Q: What does the woman mean?
A.The man can stay in her brother’s apartment.
B.Her brother can help the man find a cheaper hotel.
C.Her brother can find an apartment for the man.
D.The man should have book a less expensive hotel.(CET-4 2005)
女士的对话没有遵守合作原则的数量及关联准则。男士说我订的旅馆贵了,而女士却说他哥哥的公寓有两间多余的房间,违背合作原则是更多地考虑了礼貌原则,女士遵循了礼貌原则的策略准则,使男士受惠最大,想要男士住在他哥哥家。因此答案为A.
5 结束语
合作原则与礼貌原则之间存在着一种进退相让的关系,要多考虑一些合作原则就只能少考虑一些礼貌原则,反之,要多考虑礼貌原则就只能牺牲合作原则。因此语言越直接越显得唐突,语言越间接就越显得婉转。
听说读写译,英语听力理解的能力的培养是大学英语教学的重点,也是大学英语四、六级考试的重点。教师要能够利用合作原则和礼貌原则指导学生正确理解听力对话中的“言外之意”“弦外之音”,使学生透过字面意思理解说话人的真正意图,使学生逐渐形成语用推理机制,逐渐提高学生的听力理解能力。
参考文献:
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关键词:合作原则 礼貌原则 会话含义 违背 遵守
1 会话的合作原则及会话含义的产生
在人们日常的交往中,大部分交际是以口头方式进行的,交谈是传递信息和获得信息的一种重要的交际方式。能称得上一次成功交谈的语言活动,不会是由一系列不相干的话语组成,美国哲学家Grice认为,在所有的语言交际活动中为了达到特定的目标,说话人和听话人之间存在着一种默契,一种双方都应该遵守的原则,他称这种原则为会话的合作原则(Cooperative Principle, 简称CP)。只有在合作的前提之下,话语交谈才能继续下去,语言交际的功能才能实现。合作原则这条基本原则可以具体体现为四条准则:
1.数量准则(Quantity maxim)
(1)使自己所说的话达到(交谈的现时目的)所要求的详尽程度;
(2)不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更为详尽。
2.质量准则(Quality maxim)
(1)不要说自己认为是不真实的话;
(2)不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。
3.关联准则(Relation maxim)
说话要贴切。
4.方式准则(Manner maxim)
(1)避免晦涩的词语;
(2)避免歧义;
(3)说话要简要(避免赘述);
(4)说话要有条理。
如果在交谈时人人都能严格遵守这四条准则,那么他们就能进行最高效、最合理的语言交际。但是,Grice指出,在实际交际中人们并不是都严格遵守这些准则的。当说话人公然不遵守一条准则,同时还让听话人知道自己违背了一条准则。Grice称此为对准则的“蔑视”,根据合作的大前提,听话人会去推理说话人传递的符合合作原则的信息,于是就产生了“会话含义”的理论。正是在此基础上说话人才有可能表达含蓄的意义。
2 会话的礼貌原则
合作原则解释了话语的字面意义和它的实际意义之间的关系,解释了会话含义是怎样产生和理解的,但没有解释人们为什么要违反会话准则来含蓄、间接的表达自己。在不少情况下,人们这样做是出于礼貌的考虑。礼貌是人类文明的标志,是人类社会活动的一条重要准绳。作为一种社会活动,语言活动同样受到这条准绳的约束。和合作原则一样,礼貌原则也可以体现在一些准则上。下面是Leech提出的礼貌准则:
1.策略准则(用于指令和承诺)
(a)使他人受损最小,(b)使他人受惠最大
2.宽宏准则(用于指令和承诺)
(a)使自身受惠最小,(b)使自身受损最大
3.赞扬准则(用于表情和表述)
(a)尽力缩小对他人的贬损,(b)尽力夸大对他人的赞扬
4.谦虚准则(用于表情和表述)
(a)尽力缩小对自身的赞扬,(b)尽力夸大对自身的贬损
5.赞同准则(用于表述)
(a)尽力缩小自身和他人之间的分歧,(b)尽力夸大自身和他人之间的一致
6.同情准则(用于表述)
(a)尽力缩小自身对他人的厌恶,(b)尽力夸大自身对他人的同情
3 合作原则与礼貌原则
合作原则和礼貌原则同属于人际修辞的范围。“修辞”是指在交际中有效的利用语言。会话的合作原则在会话中起着调节说话内容的作用,它使说话人在假设对方乐于合作的前提下进行交际。而礼貌原则具有更高一层的调节作用,它维护了交谈双方的均等地位和他们之间的友好关系。为了维护礼貌原则,人们可以牺牲合作原则下的准则。在有些情况下,人们对合作原则的考虑高于对礼貌原则的考虑,在这样的交际中人们把信息的交流看作高于一切。
4 对话中合作原则与礼貌原则分析
会话含义无疑是间接语言的一种重要表现。在会话交际中,含义(implication)的理解是一个十分关键的方面,通常体现讲话者交际意图的主要特征。大学英语四级考试听力短对话正是根据语言交际的这一语用原理来设置,重点考察我们学生语言运用能力,培养实际生活中的语言交际能力。这也是我们大学英语培养学生英语能力的一项重要目标。下面通过对历年四级听力试题中部分短对话的分析来了解一下人们是怎样在交际中有效的利用语言来实现自己的交际目的的。在做四级听力理解习题中又该怎样利用这一语言现象来更好的理解题目,提高听力水平。
例1. M: What a boring speaker! I can hardly stay awake.
W: Well, I don't know. In fact, I think it's been a long time since I've heard anyone is good.
Q: What do we learn from the conversation?
A.The woman has known the speaker for a long time.
B.The woman has difficulty understanding the lecture.
C.The man is making a fuss about nothing.
D.The woman thinks highly about the speaker. (CET-4 2011) 对话中男士对演讲很不满,觉得非常的乏味。女士在回应的过程中的“Well, I don't know.”表达了与男士观点的不同,没有遵守会话礼貌原则中的赞同准则,是为了遵守合作原则中的质量准则,传达自己的真实想法,她觉得演讲者是她长久以来听到的最好的了。该题中女士对合作原则的考虑高于了礼貌原则。
例2. M: Do you think I could borrow your car to go grocery shopping? The supermarkets outside the city are so much cheaper. I’d also be happy to pick up anything you need.
W: Well, I don’t like to let anyone else drive my car. Tell you what, why don’t we go together?
Q: What does the woman mean?
A.She will drive the man to the market.
B.The man should buy a car of his own.
C.The man needn’t go shopping every week.
D.She can pick the man up at the grocery shop.(CET-4 2010)
对话中男士向女士借车,女士遵循了合作原则中的质量原则表达了自己不喜欢别人开自己的车的想法,但这一表达违背了礼貌原则,女士主动提出和男士一起去超市,这一表达违背了合作原则中的数量原则,答案为A选项,而B选项完全不符合会话的礼貌原则,容易引起矛盾和冲突。本对话中合作原则与礼貌原则互为退让,做好分析有助于正确理解对话,选出正确答案。
例3. W: You’re taking a course with Professor Johnson. What’s your impression so far?
M: Well, many students could hardly stay awake in his class without first drinking a cup of coffee.
Q: What does the man imply?
A.Few students understand Pro. Johnson’s lectures.
B.Few students meet Pro. Johnson’s requirements.
C.Many students find Pro. Johnson’s lectures boring.
D.Many students have dropped Pro. Johnson’s class.(CET-4 2010)
对话中男士出于礼貌的考虑没有直接表达对Professor Johnson上课的感受,而是借用了同学们的表现间接的说明Professor Johnson上课很无聊,大家上他的课都想睡觉。因此他违背了合作原则的关联准则。
例4. W: I need to talk to someone who knows Baltimore well. I’m told you lived there.
M: Oh, but I was really young at the time.
Q: What does the man mean?
A.He moved to Baltimore when he was young.
B.He can provide very little useful information.
C.He will show the woman around Baltimore.
D.He will ask someone else to help the woman. (CET-4 2009)
对话中女士遵循了礼貌原则中的策略准则,在对别人做出请求的时候尽量做到了礼貌、委婉,省略了她的请求:“Can you tell me something about Baltimore?”而男士听出了她的言外之意,但事实上男士并不能为她提供他需要的信息,为了维护合作原则的质量准则,他违背了数量准则和关联准则,礼貌、婉转地表达了自己基本不能为她提供多少信息的真实情况。因此正确答案应为B,而A选项是干扰性比较大的选项很容易被考生错选,造成错选的原因就是男士的答语违背了数量原则,完整的句子应为I lived there when I was really young.
例5. W: Tony was awarded a medal for rescuing several families from the forest fire.
M: I really admire his courage.
Q: What do we learn about Tony from the conversation?
A.He was pleased to get the medal.
B.He was very courageous.
C.He used to be a firefighter.
D.He was accused of causing a fire.(CET-4 2009) 对话中男士的话语遵循了礼貌原则中的赞同准则,尽力缩小与他人之间的分歧。同时他违背了合作准则中的关联准则,出题者正是抓住了这一点设置了问题。
例6. W: You bought a pair of jeans yesterday, didn’t you? What are they like?
M: Oh, they are pretty much like my other ones, except with a larger waist. I guess I haven’t spent much time exercising lately.
Q: What can we infer from the conversation about the man?
A.He prefers to wear jeans with a larger waist.
B.He has been extremely busy recently.
C.He has gained some weight lately.
D.He enjoyed going shopping with Jane yesterday.(CET-4 2008)
对话中男士提供了比女士想要知道的更多的内容,没有遵守合作原则的数量准则,女士只是想要了解他新买牛仔裤的样子,他回答了问题跟以前的差不多,又给出了多余的信息,比之前的腰围要大,还外加了腰围大的原因。这一外加信息正好是该题问题的出处,男士用婉转的方式说出了自己最近还是增长了些体重。
例7. W: I really like those abstract paintings we saw yesterday. What do you think?
M: I guess it’s something I haven’t acquired a taste for yet.
Q: What does the man imply?
A.The woman possesses a nature for art.
B.Women have a better artistic taste than men.
C.He isn’t good at abstract thinking.
D.He doesn’t like abstract paintings. (CET-4 2008)
该题中男士的回答明显违背了合作原则中的方式准则,用了晦涩的语言以及容易产生歧义的回答来表达自己不喜欢抽象画的想法。但同时遵守了礼貌原则中的赞同准则和谦虚准则,“something I haven’t acquired a taste for yet”还没开始喜欢,日后可能会感兴趣,尽力的缩小了自身和他人之间的分歧,尽力夸大了对自身的贬损。ABC三个选项都有可能从男士的话语中推断,但根据合作原则,女士询问的是男士对抽象画的想法,最关联的应为答案D。
例8. W: You haven’t seen a blue notebook, have you? I hope I didn’t leave it in the reading room.
M: Did you check that pile of journals you’ve borrowed from the library the other day?
Q: What is the man trying to say to the woman?
A.She couldn’t have left her notebook in the library.
B.She may have put her notebook amid the journals.
C.She should have made careful notes while doing reading.
D.She shouldn’t have read his notes without his knowing it. (CET-4 2008)
对话中对女士的反问没有作回答而是又提出了一个问题,他明显没有遵守合作原则中的数量准则及关系准则,但是维护了质量准则,因为他对于情况并没有十分的把握,不能说没有把握的话。因此他的言外之意是:“你可能把笔记本夹放在杂志中了。”
例9. M: How about joining me for a cup of coffee?
W: I’d love to, but I’m exhausted. I was up till 3 this morning, writing a paper for my literature class.
Q: Why does the woman decline the man’s invitation?
A.She wants to get some sleep.
B.She needs time to write a paper.
C.She has a literature class to attend.
D.She is trouble by her sleep problem.(CET-4 2008)
该对话中女士违背了合作原则的质量准则,她说了谎,而且让男士知道她说了谎从而传递了她的言外之意,婉言谢绝了男士的邀请。这种情况在我们的日常生活中经常遇见,考生也比较容易理解,因此出题人从另一个角度来考察,也就是女孩在拒绝男孩邀请给出的理由同样违背了合作原则中的数量准则:“I was up till 3 this morning, writing a paper for my literature class.”后还应该有一句“So, I want to get some sleep.”也就是我们本题的答案了。 例10. M: I am going to New York next week, but the hotel I booked is really expensive.
W: Why book a hotel? My brother has 2 spare rooms in his apartment.
Q: What does the woman mean?
A.The man can stay in her brother’s apartment.
B.Her brother can help the man find a cheaper hotel.
C.Her brother can find an apartment for the man.
D.The man should have book a less expensive hotel.(CET-4 2005)
女士的对话没有遵守合作原则的数量及关联准则。男士说我订的旅馆贵了,而女士却说他哥哥的公寓有两间多余的房间,违背合作原则是更多地考虑了礼貌原则,女士遵循了礼貌原则的策略准则,使男士受惠最大,想要男士住在他哥哥家。因此答案为A.
5 结束语
合作原则与礼貌原则之间存在着一种进退相让的关系,要多考虑一些合作原则就只能少考虑一些礼貌原则,反之,要多考虑礼貌原则就只能牺牲合作原则。因此语言越直接越显得唐突,语言越间接就越显得婉转。
听说读写译,英语听力理解的能力的培养是大学英语教学的重点,也是大学英语四、六级考试的重点。教师要能够利用合作原则和礼貌原则指导学生正确理解听力对话中的“言外之意”“弦外之音”,使学生透过字面意思理解说话人的真正意图,使学生逐渐形成语用推理机制,逐渐提高学生的听力理解能力。
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