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1. The Theory and Application of Brainstorming
Modern teaching methods such as games, role-playing and debate are less controlled oral activities compared with the traditional ones. They stimulate students' interest and enthusiasm and change the students' role in speaking from passive to more active. However, students still feel nervous when they speak English, because of the lack of confidence and preparation before speaking. Students may worry about their speech being impeded by failing to find appropriate words for expressing their ideas. In summary, the modern teaching methods have a tendency of making only the extrovert students participate in the speaking practice. With the help of applying a newly developed brainstorming technique, this disadvantage can be overcome.
2. Introduction to Brainstorming
2.1 What Is Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the name given to a situation when a group of people meets to generate new ideas around a specific area of interest. Using rules that remove inhibitions, people are able to think more freely and move into new areas of thought and so as to create numerous new ideas and solutions. The participants shout out ideas as they occur to them and then build on the ideas raised by others. All the ideas are noted down but not criticized. Only when the brainstorming session is over are the ideas evaluated. The basic reason for brainstorming is dramatically expressed as a technique that encourages people to stick their neck out so that radically new ideas will constantly be produced, just like the turtle, which makes progress only when his neck is out (Carles Clark 1958:51-65).
If effectively performed, brainstorming session can be lively, interesting, and enlightening, resulting in unforeseen ideas across the spectrum of a problem. According to Gerald Pepper (2001), in order to get the most out of a brainstorming session, groups need to follow the basics of brainstorming:
(1)Criticism is ruled out
Adverse judgment of ideas must be withheld until later.
(2)"Free -wheeling" is welcome
The wilder the idea, the better; it is easier to tame down than to think up.
(3)Quantity is wanted
The greater the number of ideas, the more the likelihood of winners.
(4)Combination and improvement are sought
In addition to contributing ideas of their own, participants should suggest how ideas of others can be turned into better ideas; or how two or more ideas can be joined into still another idea.
2.2Birth of Brainstorming
In 1941 Alex Osborn, an American advertising executive, found that conventional business meetings were inhibiting the creation of new ideas. He noticed that every conference he attended was dominated by a 'No, no, a thousand times no" atmosphere. Ideas were suffocated if they were mentioned, and too many people remained silent at the conference. The conference was dominated by the manager himself. Yet, in advertising, new ideas, hundreds upon hundreds of new ideas were vital. In order to give people the freedom of mind and action to spark off and reveal new ideas, Osborn developed a conference technique---brainstorming, which has been imitated all over the country. "To think up" was originally the term Osborn used to describe the process he developed, and that in turn came to be known as "brainstorming".
Brainstorming has proved itself with practical results to such a degree that it is used by banks, colleges, research laboratories, churches, the military services, civic organizations, political parties—— in fact, it is an integral part of the operation of eight of the nation's ten largest corporations (Charles Clark, 1958:51-65).
3. Theoretical Basis for Brainstorming
Brainstorming is based on the assumption that everyone has the ability to create. What is creativity? Trying to define it is like trying to capture a puff of smoke with your fingertips. Although we recognize creative imagination in everything from works ofart to a balanced budget, we don't know how it works. And so we tend to imagine that creativity is a mysterious and uncontrollable burst of inspiration available only to a lucky few (Tom Wujec, 1995:4-8). Nevertheless, thinking creatively is a common experience. We experience creativity every time a fresh idea pops into our minds. And we can summon creativity when we need it. Unfortunately, many people hold that creativity is only associated with writing a novel or composing a symphony. Such a narrow view of creativity will make them overlook their own originality.In fact, everyone is imbued with creativity and displays flair and imagination in their lives without notice. For example, a housewife is creative when she cooks a meal with a distinctive flavor, a student is also creative when he answers a question in a different way.
People also tend to think that creativity does belong to those with high intelligence. However, the research examining the relationship between intelligence and creativity has been proved that there is only a weak relationship between creativity and intelligence (Getzel & Jackson ,1962:175-176). Getzels and Jackson (1962) identified a group of "highly creative" adolescents who scored in the top 20 percent in the creativity test but who were not in the top 20 percent in the intelligence test. Similarly, they identified a group of high IQ adolescents who scored in the top 20 percent on measures of intelligence but were not in the top 20 percent on measures of creativity. The mean IQ of Getzels and Jackson's "highly creative" group was 23 points below the mean of the high IQ group and lower than the average IQ of the entire student number in the school studied. It seems that average intelligence is necessary for creativity, but beyond that there is no particular relationship between the two. It is also quite possible for highly intelligent people to be absolutely uncreative. What all this means is that high intelligence isn't quite indispensable for creativity and creativity isn't quite indispensable for intelligence. According to the conclusion made by Getzels and Jackson (1962), teachers should expect to find creativity in all of their students, not only in top students and brainstorming is the effective way to enhance the creativity of the students.
4. Some Special Applications of Brainstorming in Teaching Writing
Brainstorming has been proven a very successful prewriting technique. Students generate as many ideas as they can think of before writing. If prewriting activities are successful, students will have plenty to write about, so the frustration of having nothing to say is minimized. It has greatly helped students in their fluency in writing ( Proett & Gill, 1986:6). The following are the special techniques of brainstorming developed in teaching writing.
4.1 Clustering :It is a generative, open-ended, non-linear, visual structuring of ideas, events, feelings. Its visual character seems to stimulate the flow of association characteristic of right-brain activity and is particularly good for students who know what they want to say "but just can't say it". To begin to cluster, choose a word that is central to your assignment. Write that word in the middle of the sheet and circle the central word. Then write down all the words that associate with the "central word". Write quickly, circling each word, grouping words around the "central word". Connect the new words to previous ones. Keep in mind that there is no right or wrong way of clustering. It is a way to think on paper about how various ideas and details relate to one another ( John Langan, 58). An example of clustering is shown in Figure 1.
4.2 Word Bank: It is a very popular prewriting activity, which lists words that come to mind about a specific topic and then categorizes them, for instance, listing words to describe people's appearance, or all items you need for a party, listing house furniture. The alternative is to show the categories first and then list the words in each category afterward. The other way for word bank is to list words based on a predetermined principle, such as writing down a food that begins with each letter of the alphabet, or making a list of animals starting with the smallest animal and getting bigger.
4.3 Mapping: It presents a graphic representation of key words to be used in a composition. Students first list words, then organize the words into categories as in a word bank. Next, students arrange these categories and words on a map like the one shown in Figure 2, the controlling topic or idea is written down in a dominant position and the supporting ideas as extensions. A pinwheel shape is only one of the many structures which may develop. Others may be triangles, concentric circle, ladders, and road maps.
4.4 Free-writing: Students are asked to write down as completely as possible the thoughts that go through their minds during a specific short time period. They use words, phrases, dashes to record the stream of ideas (or write the word "nothing" to record the blank times). This is both an exercise in fluency and a source for ideas that may be developed further while writing.
4.5 Timed Free-writing: The teacher may ask students to spend a few minutes at the beginning of class writing as much as possible about any topic. The goal in timed writing is to maximize the quantity without taking grammatical or mechanical accuracy into the consideration.
4.6 Timed Focused-writing: The short time period for fluency writing is focused on a teacher-selected topic or picture. Students try to get down as many words as possible, expressing as many thoughts as the time allows.
4.7 Finding Alternatives for a Blank in a Sentence: Students are asked to fill in the blanks with as many words as they can think of.For example, if the question is "I don't like to make friends with her because she is ______", the answers should include but not limit to: too talkative, boring, and selfish.
4.8 Changing One Word in a Sentence Each Time:In this activity, each word must be changed, but each sentence must have a meaning. Students may add one word and take away one word by imagination.Example:
Peter played basketball on the playground.
Peter played basketball in the stadium.
John played football in the stadium.
John watched football in the stadium.
John watched football near the stadium.
4.9 Listing Different Ways of Expressing a Particular Language Function: Students are asked to express one of his wishes by listing different expressions.
Example: Please open the window.
I'd appreciate if you could open the window.
Would you mind opening the window?
References：
[1]Clark,H.Charles.Brainstorming:How to Create Successful Ideas.Hollywood: Wilshire Book Company,1958.
[2]Wujec,Tom.Five Star Mind:Games&Puzzles to Stimulate Your Creativity& Imagination.Canada:Doubleday Canada Limited,1995.
Modern teaching methods such as games, role-playing and debate are less controlled oral activities compared with the traditional ones. They stimulate students' interest and enthusiasm and change the students' role in speaking from passive to more active. However, students still feel nervous when they speak English, because of the lack of confidence and preparation before speaking. Students may worry about their speech being impeded by failing to find appropriate words for expressing their ideas. In summary, the modern teaching methods have a tendency of making only the extrovert students participate in the speaking practice. With the help of applying a newly developed brainstorming technique, this disadvantage can be overcome.
2. Introduction to Brainstorming
2.1 What Is Brainstorming
Brainstorming is the name given to a situation when a group of people meets to generate new ideas around a specific area of interest. Using rules that remove inhibitions, people are able to think more freely and move into new areas of thought and so as to create numerous new ideas and solutions. The participants shout out ideas as they occur to them and then build on the ideas raised by others. All the ideas are noted down but not criticized. Only when the brainstorming session is over are the ideas evaluated. The basic reason for brainstorming is dramatically expressed as a technique that encourages people to stick their neck out so that radically new ideas will constantly be produced, just like the turtle, which makes progress only when his neck is out (Carles Clark 1958:51-65).
If effectively performed, brainstorming session can be lively, interesting, and enlightening, resulting in unforeseen ideas across the spectrum of a problem. According to Gerald Pepper (2001), in order to get the most out of a brainstorming session, groups need to follow the basics of brainstorming:
(1)Criticism is ruled out
Adverse judgment of ideas must be withheld until later.
(2)"Free -wheeling" is welcome
The wilder the idea, the better; it is easier to tame down than to think up.
(3)Quantity is wanted
The greater the number of ideas, the more the likelihood of winners.
(4)Combination and improvement are sought
In addition to contributing ideas of their own, participants should suggest how ideas of others can be turned into better ideas; or how two or more ideas can be joined into still another idea.
2.2Birth of Brainstorming
In 1941 Alex Osborn, an American advertising executive, found that conventional business meetings were inhibiting the creation of new ideas. He noticed that every conference he attended was dominated by a 'No, no, a thousand times no" atmosphere. Ideas were suffocated if they were mentioned, and too many people remained silent at the conference. The conference was dominated by the manager himself. Yet, in advertising, new ideas, hundreds upon hundreds of new ideas were vital. In order to give people the freedom of mind and action to spark off and reveal new ideas, Osborn developed a conference technique---brainstorming, which has been imitated all over the country. "To think up" was originally the term Osborn used to describe the process he developed, and that in turn came to be known as "brainstorming".
Brainstorming has proved itself with practical results to such a degree that it is used by banks, colleges, research laboratories, churches, the military services, civic organizations, political parties—— in fact, it is an integral part of the operation of eight of the nation's ten largest corporations (Charles Clark, 1958:51-65).
3. Theoretical Basis for Brainstorming
Brainstorming is based on the assumption that everyone has the ability to create. What is creativity? Trying to define it is like trying to capture a puff of smoke with your fingertips. Although we recognize creative imagination in everything from works ofart to a balanced budget, we don't know how it works. And so we tend to imagine that creativity is a mysterious and uncontrollable burst of inspiration available only to a lucky few (Tom Wujec, 1995:4-8). Nevertheless, thinking creatively is a common experience. We experience creativity every time a fresh idea pops into our minds. And we can summon creativity when we need it. Unfortunately, many people hold that creativity is only associated with writing a novel or composing a symphony. Such a narrow view of creativity will make them overlook their own originality.In fact, everyone is imbued with creativity and displays flair and imagination in their lives without notice. For example, a housewife is creative when she cooks a meal with a distinctive flavor, a student is also creative when he answers a question in a different way.
People also tend to think that creativity does belong to those with high intelligence. However, the research examining the relationship between intelligence and creativity has been proved that there is only a weak relationship between creativity and intelligence (Getzel & Jackson ,1962:175-176). Getzels and Jackson (1962) identified a group of "highly creative" adolescents who scored in the top 20 percent in the creativity test but who were not in the top 20 percent in the intelligence test. Similarly, they identified a group of high IQ adolescents who scored in the top 20 percent on measures of intelligence but were not in the top 20 percent on measures of creativity. The mean IQ of Getzels and Jackson's "highly creative" group was 23 points below the mean of the high IQ group and lower than the average IQ of the entire student number in the school studied. It seems that average intelligence is necessary for creativity, but beyond that there is no particular relationship between the two. It is also quite possible for highly intelligent people to be absolutely uncreative. What all this means is that high intelligence isn't quite indispensable for creativity and creativity isn't quite indispensable for intelligence. According to the conclusion made by Getzels and Jackson (1962), teachers should expect to find creativity in all of their students, not only in top students and brainstorming is the effective way to enhance the creativity of the students.
4. Some Special Applications of Brainstorming in Teaching Writing
Brainstorming has been proven a very successful prewriting technique. Students generate as many ideas as they can think of before writing. If prewriting activities are successful, students will have plenty to write about, so the frustration of having nothing to say is minimized. It has greatly helped students in their fluency in writing ( Proett & Gill, 1986:6). The following are the special techniques of brainstorming developed in teaching writing.
4.1 Clustering :It is a generative, open-ended, non-linear, visual structuring of ideas, events, feelings. Its visual character seems to stimulate the flow of association characteristic of right-brain activity and is particularly good for students who know what they want to say "but just can't say it". To begin to cluster, choose a word that is central to your assignment. Write that word in the middle of the sheet and circle the central word. Then write down all the words that associate with the "central word". Write quickly, circling each word, grouping words around the "central word". Connect the new words to previous ones. Keep in mind that there is no right or wrong way of clustering. It is a way to think on paper about how various ideas and details relate to one another ( John Langan, 58). An example of clustering is shown in Figure 1.
4.2 Word Bank: It is a very popular prewriting activity, which lists words that come to mind about a specific topic and then categorizes them, for instance, listing words to describe people's appearance, or all items you need for a party, listing house furniture. The alternative is to show the categories first and then list the words in each category afterward. The other way for word bank is to list words based on a predetermined principle, such as writing down a food that begins with each letter of the alphabet, or making a list of animals starting with the smallest animal and getting bigger.
4.3 Mapping: It presents a graphic representation of key words to be used in a composition. Students first list words, then organize the words into categories as in a word bank. Next, students arrange these categories and words on a map like the one shown in Figure 2, the controlling topic or idea is written down in a dominant position and the supporting ideas as extensions. A pinwheel shape is only one of the many structures which may develop. Others may be triangles, concentric circle, ladders, and road maps.
4.4 Free-writing: Students are asked to write down as completely as possible the thoughts that go through their minds during a specific short time period. They use words, phrases, dashes to record the stream of ideas (or write the word "nothing" to record the blank times). This is both an exercise in fluency and a source for ideas that may be developed further while writing.
4.5 Timed Free-writing: The teacher may ask students to spend a few minutes at the beginning of class writing as much as possible about any topic. The goal in timed writing is to maximize the quantity without taking grammatical or mechanical accuracy into the consideration.
4.6 Timed Focused-writing: The short time period for fluency writing is focused on a teacher-selected topic or picture. Students try to get down as many words as possible, expressing as many thoughts as the time allows.
4.7 Finding Alternatives for a Blank in a Sentence: Students are asked to fill in the blanks with as many words as they can think of.For example, if the question is "I don't like to make friends with her because she is ______", the answers should include but not limit to: too talkative, boring, and selfish.
4.8 Changing One Word in a Sentence Each Time:In this activity, each word must be changed, but each sentence must have a meaning. Students may add one word and take away one word by imagination.Example:
Peter played basketball on the playground.
Peter played basketball in the stadium.
John played football in the stadium.
John watched football in the stadium.
John watched football near the stadium.
4.9 Listing Different Ways of Expressing a Particular Language Function: Students are asked to express one of his wishes by listing different expressions.
Example: Please open the window.
I'd appreciate if you could open the window.
Would you mind opening the window?
References：
[1]Clark,H.Charles.Brainstorming:How to Create Successful Ideas.Hollywood: Wilshire Book Company,1958.
[2]Wujec,Tom.Five Star Mind:Games&Puzzles to Stimulate Your Creativity& Imagination.Canada:Doubleday Canada Limited,1995.