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【Abstract】Since 1960s’， especially with the development of cognitive linguistics， metaphor， has not only been a language phenomenon， but also a rhetorical device and even a way of thinking in this view. Metaphor translation from English to Chinese， of course， is a challenge among Chinese translators under different cultural backgrounds. Metaphor exists both in Chinese and English， with several differences as for structure， extent and translation. In this paper， the author introduces metaphor in a view of cognitive linguistics and explains some methods for translation of metaphor under this view. To understand and translate metaphor using cognitive linguistics view， translators should make good use of differences of metaphor between English and Chinese， cultural background knowledge and accurate principles and methods to make translations more reasonable and worthier.
【Key words】metaphor； translation； cognitive linguistics； methods
Ⅰ. Introduction
Since 1960s’， especially with the development of cognitive linguistics， metaphor， has not only been a language phenomenon， but also a rhetorical device and even a way of thinking in this view. It is always the hot topic in literature works， academic articles and teaching for researchers， especially in translation in recent years. Translation of metaphor from English to Chinese， of course， is a challenge among Chinese translators under different cultural backgrounds from English.
Metaphor exists both in Chinese and English， with several differences as for structure， extent and translation under the view of cognitive linguistics. Based on these differences， there are plenty of principles and methods of translation of metaphor. Synthetically， metaphor is not only to translate in the view of rhetorical devices. In this paper， the author explains translation of metaphor under the view of cognitive linguistics in a general and systematical way. The paper consists of introduction，
Ⅱ. The definition of metaphor from the aspect of cognitive linguistics
With the development of researches in metaphor translation， metaphor has been a way of thinking for human beings in cognitive linguistics. “It reflects different cultures as the foundation of understanding， thinking and conducting” （Tan， 2002：26）. Accordingly， the definition of metaphor has been added a new meaning above the rhetorical level.
As cognitive linguists George Lackoff and Mark Johnson pointed out in Metaphor We Lived By， metaphor as the foundation of language and social culture is the basic way of human life， characterized with thought and action （Tan， 2002：26）. Metaphor as a way of thinking assists human beings with learning unknown objects by using known ones or refreshing perspectives of known ones. This is the definition of metaphor from the aspect of cognitive linguistics. With regard to language itself， metaphor stands for polish and embellishment of language usage. Language is the supporter of culture and metaphor as the rhetorical device on the level of words reflects the inseparable relationship between language and culture. To this degree， metaphor is a kind of language phenomenon， which is the most vivid and lively expression （Kong， 2006：47）.
The conceptual theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson offered a different approach to the analysis of metaphors by dividing two different cognitive domains， i.e. “source domain” and “target domain”. Each cognitive domain contains some conceptual schemas based on the experience. The metaphor is gained by mapping the source domain onto the target domain. So in the metaphor ‘John is a tiger’， the understanding of the metaphor is realized by mapping the conceptual domain of “tiger” onto the conceptual domain of “John”.
Ⅲ. Differences of metaphor between English and Chinese in the view of cognitive linguistics
Metaphor exists both in English and Chinese， such as literature， science， business， military affairs and medicine， mainly in nouns and verbs. Metaphor in English and Chinese share some similar characters and still， there are some differences because of different cultural backgrounds. It is full of significance to learn different structures or meanings of metaphor in English and Chinese.
1. Metaphor in Chinese
Metaphor in Chinese came up first in The Book of Songs and Sage Mo Zi was the first one to define metaphor， a way to describe something by something else through comparison. From Qin Dynasty to modern times， plenty of theorists have put forward many theories about translation of metaphor. At first， metaphor was a tool to communicate and persuade. Since 1920s， scholars in China have conducted deep researches on translation of metaphor， providing translators with systematic and entire analysis on translation of metaphor.
Compared with metaphor in English， the relationship between the object and vehicle in metaphor in Chinese is closer in form. “Metaphor in Chinese can be classified into two groups according to metaphorical words” （He， 2011：44-45）.
The first type is metaphor with words like“是”，“成了”，“成為”and “变成”etc to express that “A is B”. For example： 手指头肿得变成了大馒头.
The second one is metaphor without those words but still showing the relationship between two objects. For example： “骆驼，你，沙漠的船，你，生命的山” （He， 2011：45）. The sentence without any word like“是”or“就是” still tells us that the camel is the boat of the desert and the mountain of life. Take another example. Dogs in western countries are the symbol of honest and friendliness， cute and funny. “Love me， love my dog” is a sentence to show people’s love for dogs. However， in Chinese especially in Han Dynasty， people used to think that dogs are shameful. “走狗” and “狗腿子” are used to describe persons who hold the candle to the devil. Also， bats are described as something dangerous and crazy， therefore， crazy bat is used to be compared as crazy people in western countries. On the contrary， bats in China is regarded as “福” due to the same pronunciation， especially with deer as“福祿”.
IV. The methods of translation of metaphor
In view of differences of translation of metaphor in English and Chinese， there are many methods to translate metaphor from English to Chinese. Traditional translation regarded metaphor as a rhetorical device. Since metaphor has been a way of thinking of human beings in cognitive linguistics， translation of metaphor can not be treated as transition of language symbols but mapping from source domain to target domain from the aspect of cognitive linguistics or explanations without mapping. When there are no source domain or target domain， translators can find similar ones from the context to complete the mapping. According to Wang Yan（2005：17）， translation is an activity of cognition， which are based on real experiences and interactions among individuals. Translators need to describe the real world and feelings based on rich understanding. He describes translation under cognitive linguistics as the following process：
According to the image， real experiences are bases of cognition. Translation of metaphor is also based on people’s experiences of real world. From the view of cognitive linguistics， translation of metaphor is the mapping from the source content to target content.
The paper mainly introduces following two methods coming from several literature on this subject.
1. Literal translation under equivalence strategy
Quite high proportion of words or phrases share the same or basically same meanings both in English and Chinese. As a result， literal translation is the common method to translate metaphor just as its definition of “condensed simile”. It is actually the mapping from source domain to target domain. Besides， literal translation with original vehicle’s characters， is conductive to retain original language characters and easy to understand. Also， literal translation can enrich words and expression of target language while translating， making the form and spirit come true at the same time. For example： （1）All roads lead to Rome （条条大路通罗马）；
（2）“He just parrots what other people say”（他只会鹦鹉学舌） （Yang， 2007：10）.
These sentences in literal translation are popularly accepted by both westerners and Chinese people. Usually， it is better to use literal translation when form， structure， emotion and style are same or basically same both in original articles and translations. With developing globalization and communication， translation of metaphor is going to mix more western and Chinese usages to deepen cultural communication.
2. Free translation or liberal translation
A lot of English words or phrases have their own fixed cultural backgrounds due to history and customs；therefore， translators using senses at the back can give readers more authentic expression and worthier information from other countries， to make translation smooth and reasonable. Free translation or liberal translation is a method to retain the original content but not the form. To this degree， translation of metaphor can be switched into translation of metonymy-switching of vehicles. In this method， translators can use images already established in Chinese or similar substitutions to avoid misunderstanding. Take following as examples.
New broom sweeps clean （新官上任三把火）.
Some fixed English idioms with free translation may be more vivid and oriented， for example： In fair weather prepare for the foul （未雨绸缪） and a lion in the path （拦路虎）. Also， some expressions in English do not have corresponding meanings in Chinese， therefore， free translation leaves readers more exact meanings， for example：
Their views remind me of a British Sunday. In England， people usually go to churches on Sunday instead of entertainment， therefore， “British Sunday” is the symbol of boredom.
V. Conclusion
To sum up， metaphor is a way of thinking for human beings under the aspect of cognitive linguistics. Metaphor both in English and Chinese share commons and differences. To understand and translate metaphor， translators should make good use of differences of metaphor between English and Chinese， cultural background knowledge and accurate principles and methods. Thus， it can make translations more reasonable and worthier， to translate accurately and to deliver more cultural information to readers.
References：
[1]何远秀.英汉常用修辞格对比研究[M].成都：西南交通大学出版社，2011.
[2]孔令宇.浅析英语中的隐喻形象[J].长春大学学报.2006，16 （6）：47.
[3]谭震华.英语隐喻词语的翻译[J].上海科技翻译.2002，4：26-27.
[4]王寅.认知語言学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2005.
[5]余玲.认知语言学中的汉英隐喻对比研究[J].武汉船舶职业技术学院学报.2008，5：106-107.
[6]杨润芬.中西文化差异对隐喻翻译的影响[J].语文学刊（高教·外版）.2007（2）：9-12.
【Key words】metaphor； translation； cognitive linguistics； methods
Ⅰ. Introduction
Since 1960s’， especially with the development of cognitive linguistics， metaphor， has not only been a language phenomenon， but also a rhetorical device and even a way of thinking in this view. It is always the hot topic in literature works， academic articles and teaching for researchers， especially in translation in recent years. Translation of metaphor from English to Chinese， of course， is a challenge among Chinese translators under different cultural backgrounds from English.
Metaphor exists both in Chinese and English， with several differences as for structure， extent and translation under the view of cognitive linguistics. Based on these differences， there are plenty of principles and methods of translation of metaphor. Synthetically， metaphor is not only to translate in the view of rhetorical devices. In this paper， the author explains translation of metaphor under the view of cognitive linguistics in a general and systematical way. The paper consists of introduction，
Ⅱ. The definition of metaphor from the aspect of cognitive linguistics
With the development of researches in metaphor translation， metaphor has been a way of thinking for human beings in cognitive linguistics. “It reflects different cultures as the foundation of understanding， thinking and conducting” （Tan， 2002：26）. Accordingly， the definition of metaphor has been added a new meaning above the rhetorical level.
As cognitive linguists George Lackoff and Mark Johnson pointed out in Metaphor We Lived By， metaphor as the foundation of language and social culture is the basic way of human life， characterized with thought and action （Tan， 2002：26）. Metaphor as a way of thinking assists human beings with learning unknown objects by using known ones or refreshing perspectives of known ones. This is the definition of metaphor from the aspect of cognitive linguistics. With regard to language itself， metaphor stands for polish and embellishment of language usage. Language is the supporter of culture and metaphor as the rhetorical device on the level of words reflects the inseparable relationship between language and culture. To this degree， metaphor is a kind of language phenomenon， which is the most vivid and lively expression （Kong， 2006：47）.
The conceptual theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson offered a different approach to the analysis of metaphors by dividing two different cognitive domains， i.e. “source domain” and “target domain”. Each cognitive domain contains some conceptual schemas based on the experience. The metaphor is gained by mapping the source domain onto the target domain. So in the metaphor ‘John is a tiger’， the understanding of the metaphor is realized by mapping the conceptual domain of “tiger” onto the conceptual domain of “John”.
Ⅲ. Differences of metaphor between English and Chinese in the view of cognitive linguistics
Metaphor exists both in English and Chinese， such as literature， science， business， military affairs and medicine， mainly in nouns and verbs. Metaphor in English and Chinese share some similar characters and still， there are some differences because of different cultural backgrounds. It is full of significance to learn different structures or meanings of metaphor in English and Chinese.
1. Metaphor in Chinese
Metaphor in Chinese came up first in The Book of Songs and Sage Mo Zi was the first one to define metaphor， a way to describe something by something else through comparison. From Qin Dynasty to modern times， plenty of theorists have put forward many theories about translation of metaphor. At first， metaphor was a tool to communicate and persuade. Since 1920s， scholars in China have conducted deep researches on translation of metaphor， providing translators with systematic and entire analysis on translation of metaphor.
Compared with metaphor in English， the relationship between the object and vehicle in metaphor in Chinese is closer in form. “Metaphor in Chinese can be classified into two groups according to metaphorical words” （He， 2011：44-45）.
The first type is metaphor with words like“是”，“成了”，“成為”and “变成”etc to express that “A is B”. For example： 手指头肿得变成了大馒头.
The second one is metaphor without those words but still showing the relationship between two objects. For example： “骆驼，你，沙漠的船，你，生命的山” （He， 2011：45）. The sentence without any word like“是”or“就是” still tells us that the camel is the boat of the desert and the mountain of life. Take another example. Dogs in western countries are the symbol of honest and friendliness， cute and funny. “Love me， love my dog” is a sentence to show people’s love for dogs. However， in Chinese especially in Han Dynasty， people used to think that dogs are shameful. “走狗” and “狗腿子” are used to describe persons who hold the candle to the devil. Also， bats are described as something dangerous and crazy， therefore， crazy bat is used to be compared as crazy people in western countries. On the contrary， bats in China is regarded as “福” due to the same pronunciation， especially with deer as“福祿”.
IV. The methods of translation of metaphor
In view of differences of translation of metaphor in English and Chinese， there are many methods to translate metaphor from English to Chinese. Traditional translation regarded metaphor as a rhetorical device. Since metaphor has been a way of thinking of human beings in cognitive linguistics， translation of metaphor can not be treated as transition of language symbols but mapping from source domain to target domain from the aspect of cognitive linguistics or explanations without mapping. When there are no source domain or target domain， translators can find similar ones from the context to complete the mapping. According to Wang Yan（2005：17）， translation is an activity of cognition， which are based on real experiences and interactions among individuals. Translators need to describe the real world and feelings based on rich understanding. He describes translation under cognitive linguistics as the following process：
According to the image， real experiences are bases of cognition. Translation of metaphor is also based on people’s experiences of real world. From the view of cognitive linguistics， translation of metaphor is the mapping from the source content to target content.
The paper mainly introduces following two methods coming from several literature on this subject.
1. Literal translation under equivalence strategy
Quite high proportion of words or phrases share the same or basically same meanings both in English and Chinese. As a result， literal translation is the common method to translate metaphor just as its definition of “condensed simile”. It is actually the mapping from source domain to target domain. Besides， literal translation with original vehicle’s characters， is conductive to retain original language characters and easy to understand. Also， literal translation can enrich words and expression of target language while translating， making the form and spirit come true at the same time. For example： （1）All roads lead to Rome （条条大路通罗马）；
（2）“He just parrots what other people say”（他只会鹦鹉学舌） （Yang， 2007：10）.
These sentences in literal translation are popularly accepted by both westerners and Chinese people. Usually， it is better to use literal translation when form， structure， emotion and style are same or basically same both in original articles and translations. With developing globalization and communication， translation of metaphor is going to mix more western and Chinese usages to deepen cultural communication.
2. Free translation or liberal translation
A lot of English words or phrases have their own fixed cultural backgrounds due to history and customs；therefore， translators using senses at the back can give readers more authentic expression and worthier information from other countries， to make translation smooth and reasonable. Free translation or liberal translation is a method to retain the original content but not the form. To this degree， translation of metaphor can be switched into translation of metonymy-switching of vehicles. In this method， translators can use images already established in Chinese or similar substitutions to avoid misunderstanding. Take following as examples.
New broom sweeps clean （新官上任三把火）.
Some fixed English idioms with free translation may be more vivid and oriented， for example： In fair weather prepare for the foul （未雨绸缪） and a lion in the path （拦路虎）. Also， some expressions in English do not have corresponding meanings in Chinese， therefore， free translation leaves readers more exact meanings， for example：
Their views remind me of a British Sunday. In England， people usually go to churches on Sunday instead of entertainment， therefore， “British Sunday” is the symbol of boredom.
V. Conclusion
To sum up， metaphor is a way of thinking for human beings under the aspect of cognitive linguistics. Metaphor both in English and Chinese share commons and differences. To understand and translate metaphor， translators should make good use of differences of metaphor between English and Chinese， cultural background knowledge and accurate principles and methods. Thus， it can make translations more reasonable and worthier， to translate accurately and to deliver more cultural information to readers.
References：
[1]何远秀.英汉常用修辞格对比研究[M].成都：西南交通大学出版社，2011.
[2]孔令宇.浅析英语中的隐喻形象[J].长春大学学报.2006，16 （6）：47.
[3]谭震华.英语隐喻词语的翻译[J].上海科技翻译.2002，4：26-27.
[4]王寅.认知語言学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2005.
[5]余玲.认知语言学中的汉英隐喻对比研究[J].武汉船舶职业技术学院学报.2008，5：106-107.
[6]杨润芬.中西文化差异对隐喻翻译的影响[J].语文学刊（高教·外版）.2007（2）：9-12.