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【Abstract】 In recent years, computer assisted language learning (CALL) increasingly attracts language learners' attentions with evident advantages. This paper introduces the basic concepts concerning CALL, learner autonomy and learning strategies, and tentatively proposes suggestions for developing language learners' strategies in CALL environment based on CALL situations in China.
【Key words】 CALL, learner autonomy, learning strategies
1 Introduction
1.1 The definition and development of CALL.The field of CALL involves the use of a computer in the language learning process. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) started in the early 1980s. According to Beatty (2003:7), “computer assisted language learning is any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language skills.” Though CALL has developed gradually over the last decades, according to Warschauer (1996), this development can be categorized in terms of three somewhat distinct phases: behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL and integrative CALL.
1.2 Learner autonomy.The concept of learner autonomy came into being in the 1980s, and in the late 1990s researches on this subject have reached the summit. David Little held that “learner autonomy depends on a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action.” (1991)
What is different between the traditional classroom situation and situations where autonomy is applied is that the learner in the latter is given the opportunity to take charge of the learning activities. Learning is an individual process: learners are all different, their backgrounds and experiences vary and they will consequently encounter new knowledge in different ways.
1.3 Learning strategies. O'Malley et al. studied the use of twenty distinct strategy types, based on an investigation of seventy high school ESL students and twenty-two teachers, and divided these strategies into 3 main categories (O'Malley et al, 1990:44-45):
Metacognitive strategies: They are higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity. Cognitive strategies: They operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning. They involve interacting with the material to be learned, manipulating the material mentally and physically, or applying a specific technique to a learning task. Social and affective strategies: They involve either interaction with another person or ideational control over affect.
2 Effectiveness of learner autonomy in CALL environment
CALL system promotes autonomous learning in the following ways. Firstly, the traditional teacher-centered language learning has shifted to student-centered. Learners go at their own paces and choose their paths according to their individual needs, interest and goals. Secondly, CALL can overcome barriers of time and place in the process of language learning, which is different from traditional language learning. Thirdly, multimedia provides students with a rather authentic learning environment. It not only facilitates an overall development of different language skills, but also arouses learners' interest in learning with a variety of accessible media like graphics, sound, animation and video.
Besides, the wide spread of the Internet provides learners with an easy access to various learning channels. Obviously, the Internet accommodates a huge amount of information available world wide; in addition, the Internet makes computer-mediated communication possible, which is less time-consuming and more feasible than any traditional means.
3 The current situation of learner autonomy in CALL environment in China
Wang Weiwei (2006) conducted a survey in Zhejiang University on the situation of autonomous English in CALL environment. The major findings can be summarized as follows:
Firstly, students spend a lot of time in using computer but not in using computer to learn English. As an important and useful learning tool, the computer is also an instrument for entertainment, which inevitably unfolds itself as an amusement world full of distractions to learners. Secondly, students demonstrate a relatively low degree of autonomy in implementing language learning strategies assisted by computer. Most of them still prefer traditional ways of learning and cannot accustom themselves to this new way of learning. Thirdly, this survey reveals that computer assisted language speaking has become an unassailable fortress despite the popularity of CALL.
This could be attributed to many reasons: first, English learners in China would rather spend time doing exercises than practicing English speaking. Second, for program developers, it is still a challenge to develop effective programs to facilitate English speaking. Third, for language researchers and teachers, they haven't found clear and persuasive evidences to prove that the computer is a useful tool to assist English speaking.
4 Developing learning strategies in CALL environment
The cultivation of autonomous learning strategies in CALL environment is a key issue for language learners. Based on the characteristics of CALL and the problems faced by Chinese learners, autonomous learning strategies can be developed in the following three aspects:
4.1 Metacognitive strategies.Metacognitive strategies involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. For instance, language learners could weigh the words they use when they are communicating with the native speakers or other people online so that they can produce idiomatic language. Besides, they can keep a record of their language learning and analyze and evaluate their learning strategies constantly so as to improve their language learning.
4.2 Cognitive strategies.Cognitive strategies include repetition, resourcing, directed physical response, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualizaiton, elaboration, transfer, inferencing (Brown, 1987). By practicing these cognitive strategies in CALL environment, language learners could make full use of the information they need from the Internet to improve their listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation skills.
4.3 Social and affective strategies.Social and affective strategies have to do with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main social and affective strategies (Brown, 1987). Social strategies: CALL provides language learners with an authentic communicating environment. Learners could visit numerous language learning websites; take part in online activities; voice their opinions on BBS; communicate with keypals through emails, chatting rooms and other channels; etc. Social strategies could not only enhance learners' language skills but also broaden their horizon and increase their communicative competence.
Affective strategies are crucial to the success of language learning. Learners should have the motivation, determination and confidence to learn the language well. Besides, learners are supposed to cultivate their interest for the target language.
4.4 Conclusion.Nowadays we have entered the highly developed information age. The Internet provides us with abundant information resources and various service tools. At present a great deal of research on CALL has been carried out home and abroad. The results show that the CALL can really provide a student-centered learning environment and promote English learning to some extent. However, we may find that problems and challenges still exist among students in using the Internet to facilitate English learning.
By analyzing the problems faced by language learners in China, suggestions on how to develop language learning strategies in CALL environment are given from the perspective of metacognitive, cognitive and social and effective strategies.
However, due to the author's limited knowledge and time, this paper only covers a small part of this field with superficial exploration. Furthermore, no empirical research is conducted to prove its effectiveness or practicality.
References
[1] Beatty, K. Teaching and Researching Computer-assisted Language Learning . London: Longman, 2003
[2] Brown, H. D. Principles of language learning and teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hal. 1987
[3] Levy, M. Computer-assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
[4] O'Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
[5] Wang Weiwei. Learning Strategies and Learner Autonomy in CALL Environment. [D] Zhejiang: Zhejiang University. 2006.
[6] Warschauer, M., Kern, R. Network-based Language Teaching: Concepts and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000.
Received date：2008-4-06
【Key words】 CALL, learner autonomy, learning strategies
1 Introduction
1.1 The definition and development of CALL.The field of CALL involves the use of a computer in the language learning process. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) started in the early 1980s. According to Beatty (2003:7), “computer assisted language learning is any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language skills.” Though CALL has developed gradually over the last decades, according to Warschauer (1996), this development can be categorized in terms of three somewhat distinct phases: behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL and integrative CALL.
1.2 Learner autonomy.The concept of learner autonomy came into being in the 1980s, and in the late 1990s researches on this subject have reached the summit. David Little held that “learner autonomy depends on a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action.” (1991)
What is different between the traditional classroom situation and situations where autonomy is applied is that the learner in the latter is given the opportunity to take charge of the learning activities. Learning is an individual process: learners are all different, their backgrounds and experiences vary and they will consequently encounter new knowledge in different ways.
1.3 Learning strategies. O'Malley et al. studied the use of twenty distinct strategy types, based on an investigation of seventy high school ESL students and twenty-two teachers, and divided these strategies into 3 main categories (O'Malley et al, 1990:44-45):
Metacognitive strategies: They are higher order executive skills that may entail planning for, monitoring, or evaluating the success of a learning activity. Cognitive strategies: They operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning. They involve interacting with the material to be learned, manipulating the material mentally and physically, or applying a specific technique to a learning task. Social and affective strategies: They involve either interaction with another person or ideational control over affect.
2 Effectiveness of learner autonomy in CALL environment
CALL system promotes autonomous learning in the following ways. Firstly, the traditional teacher-centered language learning has shifted to student-centered. Learners go at their own paces and choose their paths according to their individual needs, interest and goals. Secondly, CALL can overcome barriers of time and place in the process of language learning, which is different from traditional language learning. Thirdly, multimedia provides students with a rather authentic learning environment. It not only facilitates an overall development of different language skills, but also arouses learners' interest in learning with a variety of accessible media like graphics, sound, animation and video.
Besides, the wide spread of the Internet provides learners with an easy access to various learning channels. Obviously, the Internet accommodates a huge amount of information available world wide; in addition, the Internet makes computer-mediated communication possible, which is less time-consuming and more feasible than any traditional means.
3 The current situation of learner autonomy in CALL environment in China
Wang Weiwei (2006) conducted a survey in Zhejiang University on the situation of autonomous English in CALL environment. The major findings can be summarized as follows:
Firstly, students spend a lot of time in using computer but not in using computer to learn English. As an important and useful learning tool, the computer is also an instrument for entertainment, which inevitably unfolds itself as an amusement world full of distractions to learners. Secondly, students demonstrate a relatively low degree of autonomy in implementing language learning strategies assisted by computer. Most of them still prefer traditional ways of learning and cannot accustom themselves to this new way of learning. Thirdly, this survey reveals that computer assisted language speaking has become an unassailable fortress despite the popularity of CALL.
This could be attributed to many reasons: first, English learners in China would rather spend time doing exercises than practicing English speaking. Second, for program developers, it is still a challenge to develop effective programs to facilitate English speaking. Third, for language researchers and teachers, they haven't found clear and persuasive evidences to prove that the computer is a useful tool to assist English speaking.
4 Developing learning strategies in CALL environment
The cultivation of autonomous learning strategies in CALL environment is a key issue for language learners. Based on the characteristics of CALL and the problems faced by Chinese learners, autonomous learning strategies can be developed in the following three aspects:
4.1 Metacognitive strategies.Metacognitive strategies involve planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of one's production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed. For instance, language learners could weigh the words they use when they are communicating with the native speakers or other people online so that they can produce idiomatic language. Besides, they can keep a record of their language learning and analyze and evaluate their learning strategies constantly so as to improve their language learning.
4.2 Cognitive strategies.Cognitive strategies include repetition, resourcing, directed physical response, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imagery, auditory representation, key word, contextualizaiton, elaboration, transfer, inferencing (Brown, 1987). By practicing these cognitive strategies in CALL environment, language learners could make full use of the information they need from the Internet to improve their listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation skills.
4.3 Social and affective strategies.Social and affective strategies have to do with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and question for clarification are the main social and affective strategies (Brown, 1987). Social strategies: CALL provides language learners with an authentic communicating environment. Learners could visit numerous language learning websites; take part in online activities; voice their opinions on BBS; communicate with keypals through emails, chatting rooms and other channels; etc. Social strategies could not only enhance learners' language skills but also broaden their horizon and increase their communicative competence.
Affective strategies are crucial to the success of language learning. Learners should have the motivation, determination and confidence to learn the language well. Besides, learners are supposed to cultivate their interest for the target language.
4.4 Conclusion.Nowadays we have entered the highly developed information age. The Internet provides us with abundant information resources and various service tools. At present a great deal of research on CALL has been carried out home and abroad. The results show that the CALL can really provide a student-centered learning environment and promote English learning to some extent. However, we may find that problems and challenges still exist among students in using the Internet to facilitate English learning.
By analyzing the problems faced by language learners in China, suggestions on how to develop language learning strategies in CALL environment are given from the perspective of metacognitive, cognitive and social and effective strategies.
However, due to the author's limited knowledge and time, this paper only covers a small part of this field with superficial exploration. Furthermore, no empirical research is conducted to prove its effectiveness or practicality.
References
[1] Beatty, K. Teaching and Researching Computer-assisted Language Learning . London: Longman, 2003
[2] Brown, H. D. Principles of language learning and teaching. New Jersey: Prentice Hal. 1987
[3] Levy, M. Computer-assisted Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
[4] O'Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
[5] Wang Weiwei. Learning Strategies and Learner Autonomy in CALL Environment. [D] Zhejiang: Zhejiang University. 2006.
[6] Warschauer, M., Kern, R. Network-based Language Teaching: Concepts and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000.
Received date：2008-4-06