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Speech act theory studies language as is ordinarily used. This approach to language provides useful insights into translation. Illocutionary function is as much the central concern in translation as in any other speech acts. The theory of meaning in speech act theory is of practical significance to translation. The total meaning of an utterance consists of intentional meaning and conventional meaning which are produced by intentional force and conventional force. Translation problems may arise from convention as well as intention. This thesis focuses on the theory of meaning proposed by Searle and investigates convention and intention in speech act respectively, analyzes translation problems caused by conventional and intentional forces and proposes corresponding solutions to the problems. Only both the intentional and the conventional meanings and the relation between them are captured can illocutionary effect of the original source be realized through translation in the target language.
1 Speech Act Theory
Speech act theory is the first major theory in pragmatics, initially proposed in the 1950s and widely discussed in the 60s and 70s. It is a description of the variety of activities that an individual may be performing when something is uttered. According to this theory, language is used not only to inform or to describe things but also to do things and to perform acts and it is the medium of doing things.
Speech act theory was proposed by John Austin, and improved by John Searle. Austin maintains that all utterances, in addition to meaning whatever they mean, perform specific actions through having specific forces. He focuses on illocutionary act which is directly achieved by the conventional force associated with the issuance of a certain kind of utterance. The illocutionary act carried out by an utterance enables the saying of something to convey more than what is literally said.
Searle adds to speech act theory his theory of utterance meaning. He introduces a distinction between literal word (or sentence) meaning and speaker's utterance meaning, which helps explain how one utterance can function in many different ways. For Searle, "meaning is more than a matter of intention; it is also at least sometimes a matter of convention."Meanings may be conveyed conventionally or intentionally, since sometimes what one means is a matter of convention and sometimes other factors like intention and context need to be taken into account. As a result, conventional force and intentional force need to be explored in analyzing and understanding linguistic phenomena, which is the initial step for translation.
2The nature of translation
Translation is a bilingual activity for it deals with source language and target language at the same time. Ever since modern linguistics was established by Saussure, translation has been helped so greatly by advances in linguistics that it is positioned as a subdiscipline of linguistics. Since the early 1950s, there has been an upsurge in studies of translation, both in its theoretical dimension and in its practice. There is a realization that the translator does something more than simply substitutes linguistic units of the original. "Whatever translation is in its entirety, it seems to involve semiotic, linguistic, textual, lexical, social, sociological, cultural and psychological aspects, all of which are being studied nowadays as determining factors in whatever the translator does".The multi-perspective and interdisciplinary study of translation has brought new light on the nature of translation.
3Significance of Speech act theory in translation
Translation is a form of language use intermediating between different speech communities. Therefore, translation deals with speech act too. Translation is directed to a specific audience who achieve their understanding of the source text via the translator. To be successful in the communication, the translator and his audience must share some common understanding that will account for the meanings of the source text. The illocutionary force of the source text is determined by the convention of the source language as well as the intention of the author. The translator plays his role as transmitter of this force into the target language. A successful translator must not be restrained to the ST situation but hold the source text under consideration of both ST and TT situation. The convention and intention of the source text is reflected in the consideration which is then conveyed through the translator's intention into the target text.
3.1Investigation of convention and intention
Conventional and intentional forces are essential in formulating the meaning of utterances. Convention is a set of rules governing semantic and syntactic performances of a language. It has been established historically and traditionally so that it holds a static and definite structure which varies progressively throughout the time. Therefore, convention can be categorized as invariant synchronically, through which understanding of a language is possible.
Unlike convention which remains relatively stable, intention is an individual force variable in different contexts. It is reachable only within a particular context. Intention may also be considered as individual application of convention, for the fact that intention is not given at ease but regulated by conventional rules. As a result, in any speech act or language performance, intention is characterized by two points: it is generated out of convention, and intentional force challenges conventional force. In this section, emphasis is placed on how to orientate intention and how intention is conveyed across language.
3.2 Understanding through convention
In linguistic terms, convention is a set of rules, observed by both the speaker/writer and the listener/reader. As a historical development, convention changes diachronically while remains stable synchronically. Therefore, convention is not only a way to acquire language but also knowledge of language itself. The duality of the nature of convention is best seen in our understanding of the meaning of an utterance. As in the sentence "The salt is on the table." The literal meaning based on convention in an utterance is primary in that the functional meanings can originate from it. When emphasis is put on the subject, it conveys the meaning ―― it is the "salt" that is on the table. Whereas it may mean that the salt is "on the table", not anywhere else, when the predicative is emphasized. The normal meaning of the sentence is usually arrived at when there is no indicative emphasis, from which parasitic meanings (when different parts are emphasized) are brought about. However, both normal meaning and parasitic meanings from emphasis can be reached through structural analysis. It's no surprising to conclude that these meanings are governed by convention.
This utterance can be employed in various circumstances to mean different things. For example: A diner at a restaurant finds his soup not tasteful and wants some salt. His request is responded to by an utterance from the waiter――"The salt is on the table." The diner may at once understand what the waiter means unless he deliberately violates the cooperative principles. He has got to help himself. The waiter would not give him a hand for the salt is right within the reach of the diner. In this case the waiter does not give a statement of what he sees, but does something through intentional force of language. Thus the speaker departs from conventional meaning of the utterance, and the listener arrives at the contextual meaning which is the intention of the speaker in that particular circumstance. Let's look at another example: A child is happy to be back home after school and eager to take out the new toys. He wants to put them on the table only to find that it is occupied by the salt. So he says to his mother: "The salt is on the table." The mother naturally knows what he may intend to mean in that context. It is not a statement about something but a speech act to do something. The illocutionary force takes effect in the mother's removal of the salt. It will be further illustrated later that the meaning of an utterance may depart from its convention.
3.3 Intentional force against convention
As is discussed above, intention is generated from and regulated by convention. Intention is an individual force while convention is a collective force. Generally speaking, a particular linguistic performance is the result of joint effect of intentional force and conventional force. However, the fact that intention is regulated by convention does not mean that the former always agrees with the latter. In fact, intention is sometimes realized as a challenge to convention, which invigorates rather than violates linguistic practice. Therefore, intentional force may stand against convention and results in the fact that intention comes apart with convention for some special effect, as is most often seen in rhetorical devices.
Rhetorical devices help to create the vividness of language for some specific effect. There are a large number of established words and expressions in English which are sometimes employed in literary works for stylistic purposes. .
Example: It gave Soames quite a turn to see that familiar beef-colored face pale and puffy as a moon, with dark corrugated circles round eyes which still had their japing stare.(John Galsworthy : The Forsyte Saga)
"To give sb. a turn" is a colloquial expression used to improve vividness, forcefulness and rich flavor in such circumstances where conventional way may be colorless and uninteresting.
Intentional force can also bring about a particular kind of tone expressing the attitude of an author toward his subject matter as reflected in his style. Tone is closely related to a writer's emotion and intent. If he is amused by his material, he may set it down in a light, humorous tone. If he is outraged by a social injustice, he may express himself in bitter, indignant words. If he wishes to criticize in a subtle way, he may choose to write in an ironic tone, presenting the opposite of what he intends to mean. Therefore, a particular tone, whether it is gay or somber, sentimental or cynical, literal or ironic, reverent or mocking,indicates the writer's intention as well as achieves certain rhetorical effect. Take, for example, the following passage by Charles Dickens.
Example: Nor was the scenery, as we approached the junction of Ohio and Mississippi rivers, at all inspiriting in its influence. The trees were stunted in their growth; the banks were low and flat; the settlements and log cabins fewer in number; their inhabitants more wan and wretched than any we had encountered yet. No songs of birds were in the air, no pleasant scents, no moving lights and shadows from swift passing clouds. Hour after hour, the changeless glare of the hot, unwinking sky shone upon the same monotonous objects. Hour after hour, the river rolled along, as wearily and as slowly as time itself.(Charles Dickens: American Notes for General Circulation)
Dickens makes clear his attitude towards the mid-western American town in this passage. The strength of his aversion to the place is expressed by the gradual accumulation of the words suggesting unpleasant images: stunted, wan, wretched, monotonous. In its word choice and structure, a tone of loathing and revulsion is emphatically expressed. Thus the writer's hostile tone is unmistakable.
It is no denying that a writer is known by his style. An individual style is the product of the writer's intentional force through his creative use of the language. Style is outstanding and impressive due to the fact that it usually challenges convention. Mark Twain is distinguished from Washington Irving by his satirical style and Ernest Hemingway distinguishes himself from others by his curt style in description. Take the following passage by Joseph Addison for example to show how the writer brings forth his intention by creating his individual style.
Example: When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in me; when I read the epitaphs of the beautiful, every inordinate desire goes out; when I meet with the grief of parents upon a tombstone, my heart melts with compassion; when I see the tombs of the parents themselves, I consider the vanity of grieving for those whom we must quickly follow; when I see kings lying by those who deposed them, when I consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy men that divided the world with their contests and disputes, I reflect with sorrow and astonishment on the little competitions, factions, and debates of mankind. (Joseph Addison: Westminster Abbey)
This style is created through repetition in the sentence structure which gives an impression of order and regularity. One can know from the effect of such a style that the author is a learned, experienced person whose opinions are worth considering. He can subordinate one aspect of experience to another, and can see the relationship between ideas. The style describes the man: informed, authoritative and prudent. It also describes his attitude toward the subject, and the attitude he wants to have. Addison has considered death and reached a judgment about it, and has soberly accepted its inevitability.
conclusion
As generally accepted, translation means translating meaning. Therefore, it is justifiable to investigate factors that affect the meaning of utterances for the sake of translation. As proposed in speech act theory, the total meaning of utterances consists of conventional meaning and intentional meaning. Conventional meaning is governed by convention which is an invariant of language and through which a language is approached. Since convention is language-specific, conventional differences, either at structural level or cultural level, may pose problems for the translator. Intentional meaning is generated from intention which is a variant of language and less language-specific. Intentional meaning can only be arrived at by contextual analysis. It may agree with convention, but sometimes it challenges convention and stands out as the total meaning of utterances. Only both the intentional and the conventional meanings and the relation between them are captured can illocutionary effect of the original source be realized through translation in the target language.
参考文献:
[1]Austin, J.L. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford [M].England: Oxford University Press, 1962.
[2]Searle, J.R. Speech Act: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001.
[3]Hickey, Leo. The Pragmatics of Translation [M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press,2001.
[4]包惠南.文化语境与语言翻译[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.
[5]冯庆华.实用翻译教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.
[6]姜望琪.语用学理论及应用[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2000.
[7]金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译续编[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1994.
1 Speech Act Theory
Speech act theory is the first major theory in pragmatics, initially proposed in the 1950s and widely discussed in the 60s and 70s. It is a description of the variety of activities that an individual may be performing when something is uttered. According to this theory, language is used not only to inform or to describe things but also to do things and to perform acts and it is the medium of doing things.
Speech act theory was proposed by John Austin, and improved by John Searle. Austin maintains that all utterances, in addition to meaning whatever they mean, perform specific actions through having specific forces. He focuses on illocutionary act which is directly achieved by the conventional force associated with the issuance of a certain kind of utterance. The illocutionary act carried out by an utterance enables the saying of something to convey more than what is literally said.
Searle adds to speech act theory his theory of utterance meaning. He introduces a distinction between literal word (or sentence) meaning and speaker's utterance meaning, which helps explain how one utterance can function in many different ways. For Searle, "meaning is more than a matter of intention; it is also at least sometimes a matter of convention."Meanings may be conveyed conventionally or intentionally, since sometimes what one means is a matter of convention and sometimes other factors like intention and context need to be taken into account. As a result, conventional force and intentional force need to be explored in analyzing and understanding linguistic phenomena, which is the initial step for translation.
2The nature of translation
Translation is a bilingual activity for it deals with source language and target language at the same time. Ever since modern linguistics was established by Saussure, translation has been helped so greatly by advances in linguistics that it is positioned as a subdiscipline of linguistics. Since the early 1950s, there has been an upsurge in studies of translation, both in its theoretical dimension and in its practice. There is a realization that the translator does something more than simply substitutes linguistic units of the original. "Whatever translation is in its entirety, it seems to involve semiotic, linguistic, textual, lexical, social, sociological, cultural and psychological aspects, all of which are being studied nowadays as determining factors in whatever the translator does".The multi-perspective and interdisciplinary study of translation has brought new light on the nature of translation.
3Significance of Speech act theory in translation
Translation is a form of language use intermediating between different speech communities. Therefore, translation deals with speech act too. Translation is directed to a specific audience who achieve their understanding of the source text via the translator. To be successful in the communication, the translator and his audience must share some common understanding that will account for the meanings of the source text. The illocutionary force of the source text is determined by the convention of the source language as well as the intention of the author. The translator plays his role as transmitter of this force into the target language. A successful translator must not be restrained to the ST situation but hold the source text under consideration of both ST and TT situation. The convention and intention of the source text is reflected in the consideration which is then conveyed through the translator's intention into the target text.
3.1Investigation of convention and intention
Conventional and intentional forces are essential in formulating the meaning of utterances. Convention is a set of rules governing semantic and syntactic performances of a language. It has been established historically and traditionally so that it holds a static and definite structure which varies progressively throughout the time. Therefore, convention can be categorized as invariant synchronically, through which understanding of a language is possible.
Unlike convention which remains relatively stable, intention is an individual force variable in different contexts. It is reachable only within a particular context. Intention may also be considered as individual application of convention, for the fact that intention is not given at ease but regulated by conventional rules. As a result, in any speech act or language performance, intention is characterized by two points: it is generated out of convention, and intentional force challenges conventional force. In this section, emphasis is placed on how to orientate intention and how intention is conveyed across language.
3.2 Understanding through convention
In linguistic terms, convention is a set of rules, observed by both the speaker/writer and the listener/reader. As a historical development, convention changes diachronically while remains stable synchronically. Therefore, convention is not only a way to acquire language but also knowledge of language itself. The duality of the nature of convention is best seen in our understanding of the meaning of an utterance. As in the sentence "The salt is on the table." The literal meaning based on convention in an utterance is primary in that the functional meanings can originate from it. When emphasis is put on the subject, it conveys the meaning ―― it is the "salt" that is on the table. Whereas it may mean that the salt is "on the table", not anywhere else, when the predicative is emphasized. The normal meaning of the sentence is usually arrived at when there is no indicative emphasis, from which parasitic meanings (when different parts are emphasized) are brought about. However, both normal meaning and parasitic meanings from emphasis can be reached through structural analysis. It's no surprising to conclude that these meanings are governed by convention.
This utterance can be employed in various circumstances to mean different things. For example: A diner at a restaurant finds his soup not tasteful and wants some salt. His request is responded to by an utterance from the waiter――"The salt is on the table." The diner may at once understand what the waiter means unless he deliberately violates the cooperative principles. He has got to help himself. The waiter would not give him a hand for the salt is right within the reach of the diner. In this case the waiter does not give a statement of what he sees, but does something through intentional force of language. Thus the speaker departs from conventional meaning of the utterance, and the listener arrives at the contextual meaning which is the intention of the speaker in that particular circumstance. Let's look at another example: A child is happy to be back home after school and eager to take out the new toys. He wants to put them on the table only to find that it is occupied by the salt. So he says to his mother: "The salt is on the table." The mother naturally knows what he may intend to mean in that context. It is not a statement about something but a speech act to do something. The illocutionary force takes effect in the mother's removal of the salt. It will be further illustrated later that the meaning of an utterance may depart from its convention.
3.3 Intentional force against convention
As is discussed above, intention is generated from and regulated by convention. Intention is an individual force while convention is a collective force. Generally speaking, a particular linguistic performance is the result of joint effect of intentional force and conventional force. However, the fact that intention is regulated by convention does not mean that the former always agrees with the latter. In fact, intention is sometimes realized as a challenge to convention, which invigorates rather than violates linguistic practice. Therefore, intentional force may stand against convention and results in the fact that intention comes apart with convention for some special effect, as is most often seen in rhetorical devices.
Rhetorical devices help to create the vividness of language for some specific effect. There are a large number of established words and expressions in English which are sometimes employed in literary works for stylistic purposes. .
Example: It gave Soames quite a turn to see that familiar beef-colored face pale and puffy as a moon, with dark corrugated circles round eyes which still had their japing stare.(John Galsworthy : The Forsyte Saga)
"To give sb. a turn" is a colloquial expression used to improve vividness, forcefulness and rich flavor in such circumstances where conventional way may be colorless and uninteresting.
Intentional force can also bring about a particular kind of tone expressing the attitude of an author toward his subject matter as reflected in his style. Tone is closely related to a writer's emotion and intent. If he is amused by his material, he may set it down in a light, humorous tone. If he is outraged by a social injustice, he may express himself in bitter, indignant words. If he wishes to criticize in a subtle way, he may choose to write in an ironic tone, presenting the opposite of what he intends to mean. Therefore, a particular tone, whether it is gay or somber, sentimental or cynical, literal or ironic, reverent or mocking,indicates the writer's intention as well as achieves certain rhetorical effect. Take, for example, the following passage by Charles Dickens.
Example: Nor was the scenery, as we approached the junction of Ohio and Mississippi rivers, at all inspiriting in its influence. The trees were stunted in their growth; the banks were low and flat; the settlements and log cabins fewer in number; their inhabitants more wan and wretched than any we had encountered yet. No songs of birds were in the air, no pleasant scents, no moving lights and shadows from swift passing clouds. Hour after hour, the changeless glare of the hot, unwinking sky shone upon the same monotonous objects. Hour after hour, the river rolled along, as wearily and as slowly as time itself.(Charles Dickens: American Notes for General Circulation)
Dickens makes clear his attitude towards the mid-western American town in this passage. The strength of his aversion to the place is expressed by the gradual accumulation of the words suggesting unpleasant images: stunted, wan, wretched, monotonous. In its word choice and structure, a tone of loathing and revulsion is emphatically expressed. Thus the writer's hostile tone is unmistakable.
It is no denying that a writer is known by his style. An individual style is the product of the writer's intentional force through his creative use of the language. Style is outstanding and impressive due to the fact that it usually challenges convention. Mark Twain is distinguished from Washington Irving by his satirical style and Ernest Hemingway distinguishes himself from others by his curt style in description. Take the following passage by Joseph Addison for example to show how the writer brings forth his intention by creating his individual style.
Example: When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies in me; when I read the epitaphs of the beautiful, every inordinate desire goes out; when I meet with the grief of parents upon a tombstone, my heart melts with compassion; when I see the tombs of the parents themselves, I consider the vanity of grieving for those whom we must quickly follow; when I see kings lying by those who deposed them, when I consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy men that divided the world with their contests and disputes, I reflect with sorrow and astonishment on the little competitions, factions, and debates of mankind. (Joseph Addison: Westminster Abbey)
This style is created through repetition in the sentence structure which gives an impression of order and regularity. One can know from the effect of such a style that the author is a learned, experienced person whose opinions are worth considering. He can subordinate one aspect of experience to another, and can see the relationship between ideas. The style describes the man: informed, authoritative and prudent. It also describes his attitude toward the subject, and the attitude he wants to have. Addison has considered death and reached a judgment about it, and has soberly accepted its inevitability.
conclusion
As generally accepted, translation means translating meaning. Therefore, it is justifiable to investigate factors that affect the meaning of utterances for the sake of translation. As proposed in speech act theory, the total meaning of utterances consists of conventional meaning and intentional meaning. Conventional meaning is governed by convention which is an invariant of language and through which a language is approached. Since convention is language-specific, conventional differences, either at structural level or cultural level, may pose problems for the translator. Intentional meaning is generated from intention which is a variant of language and less language-specific. Intentional meaning can only be arrived at by contextual analysis. It may agree with convention, but sometimes it challenges convention and stands out as the total meaning of utterances. Only both the intentional and the conventional meanings and the relation between them are captured can illocutionary effect of the original source be realized through translation in the target language.
参考文献:
[1]Austin, J.L. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford [M].England: Oxford University Press, 1962.
[2]Searle, J.R. Speech Act: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2001.
[3]Hickey, Leo. The Pragmatics of Translation [M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press,2001.
[4]包惠南.文化语境与语言翻译[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.
[5]冯庆华.实用翻译教程[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.
[6]姜望琪.语用学理论及应用[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2000.
[7]金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译续编[M].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,1994.