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摘 要：英语的新词以每年至少850个新词的速度增加，在这些新词中，短语动词成为英语新词汇中的一个重要组成部分。本研究是以190多万字的最新英语报刊新闻语料库为基础，归纳出最近五年来出现的102个最新短语动词，着重分析这些新短语动词的构成方式、句法特征和语义特征。
关键词：新短语动词；语料库；构成方式；句法特征；语义特征
1.引言
语言是社会政治、经济、思想、文化的象征，它是社会发展的一面镜子。语言的发展折射着社会的发展，时代的变迁和科技的进步。一定时期的新词新语是一定时期人们思维方式和生活方式的反映。1964年美国学者布赖特（J.B.Pride）在它的《社会语言学》中提出了“语言和社会结构的共变”的理论：当社会生活发生渐变或激变时，作为社会现象的语言会毫不含糊地随着社会生活进展的步伐而发生变化。语言作为社会必要的存在条件，作为一种特殊的社会现象，作为社会最主要的交际工具，它一方面对社会有绝对的依附性，另一方面它对社会的发展有应变性。语言要适应社会的变化着的交际需要而不断演变和发展。在语言和社会的变革中，他们相互接触，相互影响，相互作用，相互制约。社会生活的变化必然引起语言诸要素的变化，而语言同样地也反映着社会生活的方方面面。”
那么“新词”是如何界定的呢？一般而言，“新词”有两个含义：第一，从时间参照角度来说，新词可以是出现在某一时间段内或自某一时间点以来所首次出现的词汇，如2001年九月十一日美国遭到恐怖袭击后出现的新词汇：9/11，post September 11，hyperterrorism（超级恐怖主义）和shuicide bomber（人鞋炸弹）等；第二，从蓝本参照角度来说，新词指的是某一词典、一些词典或所有现有词典未曾收录的词汇，许多词典的增补版中收录的词汇就属于该范畴，如陆谷孙的《英汉大词典补编》中所收录的词汇。
英语的词汇有200多万个，并且以每年至少850个新词的速度增加，而在这些新词中，短语动词成为英语新词汇中的一个重要组成部分。这是因为在英语语言中，动词是最为活跃的词汇，它们与不同的小品词搭配组成新的短语动词，也是日常语言交流中很重要的部分。新的短语动词的出现顺应了日益发展的社会需求，丰富了英语的词汇，但是也增加了中国学生学习英语的难度。
2.文献综述
2.1 短语动词的定义
麦克阿瑟（McArthur，1998)指出“短语动词”这个术语是Logan Pearsall Smith在Words and Idiom(1925)首先使用的。短语动词是一种特殊的动词，它又被称为复合动词、动词-副词组合、动词-小品词结构和两部分词。不同的语言学家对短语动词的理解各有千秋。传统语法学家认为短语动词是动词与副词小品词的结合。例如：
I got up at 6 this morning.
He put off the meeting.
Dictionary of Idioms and Their Origins描述的短语动词是单音节简单动词（如put, take, get, etc.）和小品词（如on, out, up, etc.）的搭配。
An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages把短语动词定义为词汇动词和一个或多个小品词的组合，如sit down和come in.
Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs把短语动词分为三种类型：
第一种：动词+副词
The old lady was taken in (=deceived) by the salesman.
第二种：动词+介词
She set about (=started) making a new dress.
第三种：动词+副词+介词
I can’t put up with (=bear or suffer) him—he’s always complaining.
夸克(Quirk,1985)把动词与副词小品词的组合称为短语动词。短语动词可分为不及物短语动词和及物短语动词。例如:
The plane has just touched down.(不及物短语动词)
She turned up unexpectedly. （不及物短语动词）
We will set up a new unit. (及物短语动词)
They have blown up the bridge. （及物短语动词）
夸克（Quirk，1985）认为短语动词属于多词动词。多词动词包括短语动词（如drink up）、介词动词（如dispose of）和短语-介词动词（如get away with）.
克洛斯（Close，1975）将短语动词分成 4 种类型，即：
Type 1. verb + preposition + NP（名词短语） ：介词不重读，有被动语态，名词部分可以是名词或代词；
Type 2. verb + adverb particle:小品词要重读，无被动语态；
Type 3. verb + object + particle或 verb + particle + object:后跟宾语时，小品词要重读，宾语是名词时，小品词可置于名词前或后；宾语是人称代词时，一般情况下，必须位于小品词之前；
Type 4. verb + particle + preposition + NP:小品词要重读。
帕尔默(Palmer, 1974)指出：短语动词由两部分组成，即动词和副词小品词。副词小品词跟随在动词之后，它可以被看作是动词的一部分，就如同动词的后缀一样。有的短语动词表达的是字面意义，这时小品词表明动作的方向。例如：
He pulled up the rope.
有的短语动词的意义是完全习语性的，这时很难看出小品词的方向性。例如：
The enemy gave in.
The contestant gave up.
The old car gave out.
从以上定义可以看出，短语动词的定义有广义和狭义两种。从广义来讲，短语动词包括动词+副词小品词、动词+介词小品词和动词+副词+介词小品词。从狭义来说，短语动词是动词和副词小品词的组合。本篇论文采用的是短语动词的狭义定义。
2.2 小品词：
小品词往往与前面的动词形成修饰和补充说明的语义关系,本身不能单独充当句子成分和独自带宾语。小品词位于词汇动词之后，其词形固定不变，和动词组成一类特殊的动词。如：drink up, dispose of和get away with中的up, of, away, with。小品词又分为两个不同，但相互有重叠的类别，即介词小品词和方位副词小品词（有些副词小品词并不含有方位的含义）。夸克(Quirk:1151)把小品词分为：
(A) against, among, as, at, beside, for, from, into, like, of, onto, upon, with, etc.
(B) about, above, across, after, along, around, by, down, in, off, on, out, over, past, round, through, under, up, etc.
(C) aback, ahead, apart, aside, astray, away, back, forward(s), home, in front, on top, out, together, etc.
（A）中的词只能做介词，（C）中的词只能做方向副词，（B）中的词即能做介词又能做方向副词。介词和方向副词的最显著的区别在于：介词后面要跟随名词短语作为介词的补语，而副词并不需要。
2.3 短语动词与介词动词的区别
夸克（Quirk:1167））认为介词动词是词汇动词和介词小品词的组合，之所以用介词动词这一概念是因为句子中的名词短语被看做是介词的补语，而不是动词和介词组合的直接宾语。例如：
Look at these pictures.
Can you cope with the work?
I don’t care for Jane’s parties.
I approve of their action.
We must go into the problem.
His eyes lighted upon the jewel.
介词动词和短语动词的区别可从句法结构和语音特点加以说明。
（1）短语动词的小品词即可以紧随动词之后，又可以放在直接宾语之后，而介词动词中的介词只能置于动词之后。例如：
Everyone should look up this word.
Everyone should look this word up.
Someone needs to look at the carburetor.
*Someone needs to look the carburetor at.
(2) 如果直接宾语是人称代词，只有介词才能放在其前，副词必须位于其后。例如：
Someone needs to look at it.
Someone needs to look it up.
(3) 短语动词中的小品词与动词之间不能用修饰性副词分隔开，而介词动词可以。例如：
Someone needs to look carefully at the carburetor.
*Everyone should look carefully up this word.
(4) 短语动词中的小品词可以用在动名词ing形式之中，而介词动词中的介词不能出现在这样的语境中。例如：
The looking up of this word was a useful exercise.
*The looking at of the carburetor is a useful exercise.
(5) 短语动词中的小品词不能放在引导关系从句的关系代词之前，而介词动词中的介词可以。例如：
The man on whom they called was my brother.
*The man up whom they called was my brother.
(6) 同样，短语动词中的小品词不能出现在特殊疑问句中的疑问词之前。例如：
On which man did they call?
*Up which man did they call?
(7) 短语动词中的小品词通常是重读的，而介词动词中的动词往往加以重读。例如：
Which man did they call on?
Which man did they call up?
短语动词和介词动词的区别可以从下表更清楚地看出：
2.4短语动词的发展
（1）古英语时期（公元450—1100年）
在古英语时期，短语动词数量很少，其形式与现在的短语动词完全不同。小品词是动词的前缀，它与动词是密不可分的。拉蒙德（Lamont,2005）指出古英语有 “b?rnan” (to burn) 和“forb?rnan” (to burn up) 这两个词，前缀“for-”是动词的词缀，不能像现在的小品词那样移动。Akimoto认为古英语词的前缀通常位于动词之前的原因在于古英语的词序是宾语—动词（宾动）结构，而现代英语是动宾结构，因此在现代英语中，小品词位于动词之后。
（2）中古英语时期(公元1100—1500年)
豪克(Hogg,2006)认为，在中古英语时期，因动词前缀已逐渐失去意义，有些人就在动词后加上小品词。该小品词在读音上是重读的，这就为其保留了词汇意义。1066年，诺曼人征服英国。法语成为富人的语言和强有力的象征，在政治、宗教、法律、军事、社交、服饰、饮食等凡是与统治阶级有关的一切领域都有反映。法语词成了这些领域所用词语的主体。法语动词进入英语，这延缓了短语动词的发展。原因在于法语动词能够涵盖古英语前缀动词的意义。法语的语体也阻碍了短语动词的发展，这是因为在诺曼登陆英格兰后，法语成为官方语言，它被应用在法院、学校和宫廷中，而英语则是下层社会劳动者用的世俗语言，其中的短语动词被认为是非正式的文体。不过，1382年用英语书写的圣经出现，确立了英语的地位，英语成为英国的全民语言。在“文艺复兴”时期（14世纪-16世纪），由于人们对古希腊、古罗马文化表现出浓厚的研究兴趣，英语又吸收了大量古代社会及当时欧洲大陆文化精华，词汇大增，短语动词的数量也不断增加。到中古英语末期，短语动词有三种存在形式：a) 古英语时期的形式，即小品词+动词(understand, overtake)； b) 动词+小品词(take up, write up)；和c)由以上两种形式转化过来的复合名词(outcry, write-off)。
（3） 现代英语时期（1500——）
经历了文艺复兴运动、英国资产阶级革命和其后的工业革命，英帝国开始向外扩张，与世界各地的交往日趋频繁，全球各地的语言都有语汇进入了英语。后来随着二战后科学技术的迅猛发展，英语的词汇越来越丰富，这也使得短语动词的数量大大增多，并且出现了更为复杂的形式，即由动词+副词小品词+介词小品词三个部分组成。例如：
We are all looking forward to your party on Saturday.
He had to put up with a lot of teasing at school.
Why don’t you look in on Mrs. Johnson on your way back?
He thinks he can get away with everything.
3.数据的采集
本项研究的前提是建立一个最新英语报刊新闻语料库。为此，本人对2005年8月年至2009年3月间国内外报刊（主要是英美报刊）的文章进行摘录，建立了190多万字的最新英语报刊新闻语料库。在此基础上，找出最近5年出现的新短语动词，总共是102个，然后用语料库检索软件Wordsmith对其进行分析。
最近五年出现的新短语动词有：fakeaway, mash up, slough off, take off, beat out, back up, snuff out, write-in, wrap-up, come over, spin out, spin off, break up, go back, come across, carve out, drive-by, lean forward, pull-aside, swipe in, pop up, blow back, upskill, sex up, naff off, veg out, trickle up, stress(ed) out, sell through, pumped-up, plug-in, pin down, lock down, fast forward, fatigue out, dress down, die for, cool down, boot up, beat down, chill out, dumb up, lock in, melt up, makeover, pop-under, pose off, tweetup, shoo-out, talk off, upturkey, upconvert, upcycling, upgradate, upsell, upshift, boreout, downshift, upskirt, upstaff, zero out, work over, work-in, wind down, whipper in, weigh off, wedge up, wash-up, walk out, walk-up, walk-in, wait-in, voice over, turnover, tucked up, trade-off, staff out, shoo-in, show-out, ship over, set-up, run up, runoff, roorback, roll-out, roll up,read off, read in, party-back, outfit, bail out, opt out, swipe out, trickle down, kick off, kick- back, fit up, claw-back, calk off, brew-up, blow off和black-out。
出现频率最高的前10位新短语动词分别是：back up, borout, mashup, cool down, pop under, upsell, downshift, zero out, pull aside和tweetup。
4.分析和讨论
4.1新短语动词的构成方式
新短语动词的构成方式主要分以下四种：
（1）拼缀法 (blending)
拼缀法是将两个词的某一部分合并或者在一个词的基础上加上另一个词的一部分而构成新词的方法。用这种方法构成的词被称为拼缀词（blends），又叫混成词、行囊词或缩合词。例如：fakeaway (blend of fake and takeaway:a homemade meal that is similar to a takeaway meal purchased from a restaurant自制或家里做的外带餐点), tweetup (blend of twitter and meetup:a real world meeting between two or more people who know each other through the online Twitter service指 Twitter 用户之间的聚会)。
（2）转类法(conversion)
转类法，又称“零位派生”，是指通过词类转化构成新词的方法。即一种词类加上零形式转化为另一种词类，词的原形不变，但转类后的词形体系和语法功能都改变了。例如: zero out (to end a voice mail message by pressing 0按零键结束语音留言), pull-aside (an informal meeting between leaders, officials, or diplomats at a public event会外会).
(3) 合成（synthesis）
在这类短语动词中，动词和小品词都是已存在的词，他们组合在一起形成新的短语动词。如：sell through（录像带零售店），wedge up（为抗议或防止狱吏的鞭打，犯人将牢门揳牢）,swipe in/swipe out(持身份识別卡在电子读卡机上刷卡来进出安全措施严密的场所或设施)等。
（4）旧词新义
旧词新义是指原有的短语动词增加了新的含义。如：back up（计算机资料的备份），plug-in(计算机插件), roll out (影片逐渐在众多影院上映)等。
4.2新短语动词的句法特征
（1）不及物短语动词
不及物短语动词是由动词和副词小品词构成，其后不能接宾语。例如：
They are taking off (make great progress) because the hardware has gotten to the point where it is possible and the software has achieved a bit of maturity, especially with Google Maps,“ said Rich Gibson, co-author of the book ”Mapping Hacks.
You're BREAKING UP (become inaudible over the telephone because of interference); I'll call you back in a minute and see if we get a better connection.
He and I GO BACK a long way- we were at school together.
Of course it is, but who begrudges an elite that inspires the rest of us to dumb up (to make an item seem more highbrow by adding token cultural artifacts; to raise one's intellectual and cultural values) and join it?
在这类短语动词中，小品词的作用如同谓体附加状语，通常不能与词汇动词分开。
（2）及物短语动词
及物短语动词可以带直接宾语。它又分为可分型短语动词(separable phrasal verbs)和粘着型短语动词(fused phrasal verbs)。在新出现的短语动词中，作为及物动词的短语动词都是可分型短语动词。可分型短语动词是指动词和小品词可以分开。如：
For all these options, your only real expense is a hard drive on which to back up your data.
For all these options, your only real expense is a hard drive on which to back your data up.
（3）新短语动词的名词化
根据《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》（Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics）(Richards,2000),名词化是“指把其他词性的词，一般为动词或形容词，变成名词的语法过程。”名词化的新短语动词共有41个，其结构分为三大类：左分支结构（left branching）和右分支结构(right branching)。左分支结构是指“小品词+动词”，右分支结构指“动词+小品词”。在新出现的名词化短语动词中，左分支结构有9 个，右分支结构有29 个。另外，还有以动名词或分词+小品词构成的名词化短语动词，共有3个：fakeaway, mash up, write-in, wrap-up, carve out, drive-by, pull-aside, trade-off, upskill, stressed out, pumped-up, plug-in, sell through, pop up, make over, beat down, lock in, melt up, pose off, pose down, talk off, upturkey, upconvert, upcycling, upgradate, upsell, upshift, boreout, downshift, upstaff, upskirt, work-in, wash-up, walk-up, walk-in, wait-in, voice over, turnover, tucked up, shoo-in和shoo-out。
名词化的新短语动词在句中可以做主语、宾语、定语、表语和同位语等。例如：
Along the way, map mashups are providing perhaps the clearest idea yet of commercial applications for the generation of so-called social technologies they represent. (作主语)
Mr George Bush, had a short “pull-aside” meeting on the sidelines of the G-8 summit. （作定语）
For many the word downshifting means simply giving up the rat race of 9 to 5 living in a large town or City and moving to the Country, buying a house, preferablt Cottage, with a bit of land and living the leisurely life of self-sufficiency.（作同位语）
Alright, the original reas on we created this site was to host a little tweetup for the Huntsville based twitter’ers. (作宾语）
What is upskirt? (作表语)
4.3新短语动词的语义特征
4.3.1英语学习者对新短语动词意义理解困难的原因
对英语学习者来说，新短语动词学习起来是一个难题，主要原因如下：
第一，新短语动词由常用动词和副词构成，如 zero out, die for 和 swipe in。如果词的整体意义与构成词的两部分合起来的意义相同时，学习者就很容易理解了。但在许多情况下，只了解构成短语动词的两部分的意义，学习者却不能理解词的整体意义。例如：
Along the way, map mashups are providing perhaps the clearest idea yet of commercial applications for the generation of so-called social technologies they represent.
第二，某些小品词如up, on, off, back等与常用动词如come, go, make, put等极易构成短语动词，然而我们事先并不知道哪个动词与哪个小品词组合在一起构成新的短语动词。
第三，现已存在的词汇在特定的语境中又有了新的含义。例如back up用在计算机领域指拷贝文件资料。
You should always BACK UP important files and documents so that you won't lose all your work if something goes wrong with the hardware.
第四，短语动词中有的小品词既可以作副词,又可以作介词,难于判定该短语动词是及物动词还是不及物动词,也难于判定小品词在语言中的位置。
鉴于以上原因，我们有必要深入详细地探析新短语动词的语义特点，这样英语学习者就能采用一种自觉、有意识的方法学习新短语动词，从而在实际应用中避免混淆、歧义和用法不当。
4.3.2小品词的意义影响短语动词的意义
作为短语动词中的重要组成部分，小品词的意义对整个短语动词的意义影响很大。在这102个新短语动词中，小品词出现频率最高的前8个如下：up, out, in, off, down, back, over和forward。
小品词在新短语动词中所起的作用主要有三种：
第一种：使动词具有一个新生意义，如：
If economy and health concerns put you off high street sandwiches, you could find inspiration for making your own tasty fakeaways in new book Sandwiches, Panini and Wraps. (a homemade meal that is similar to a takeaway meal purchased from a restaurant)
Talk-off occurs when the device tries to translate voice to digits. Some people with gravelly voices trigger invalid conversions that can mess up a transaction. I had several of these units translate my voice into DTMF tones during testing. (An automated phone system problem in which people with certain kinds of voices produce sounds identical to phone tones)
第二种：与动词搭配后，小品词具有新的或特殊意义，但并没有使动词的意义发生变化，如：
A prime example is X10.com's pop-under ads for their wireless video cameras. X10's pop-under ads were popping up on prime media sites like MSN, the N.Y. Times and Alta Vista. (a Web site ad that opens in a separate browser window hidden under the current browser window)
第三种：小品词起强调作用或表示动作的完成，如：
In September, regional winners will meet in Los Angeles in a pose-off for the national title, with the champion crowned by Bikram Choudhury, the iconoclastic and occasionally outrageous founder of Bikram yoga. (a competition in which one contestant attempts to strike better poses than another, especially in bodybuilding)
以小品词up为例，在这102个新短语动词中，有30个词是动词与小品词up组合在一起的，其造词能力很强。Up在这些新短语动词中的意义分为以下四种：
(a) 准备和开始
Up与动词搭配，表明事情正在准备之中或正在开始。例如：
You have to be kidding me that we have to boot up the TV in the bedroom.
(b) 价格等的提高、质量的增强和改善
在这些由up与动词组合的新短语动词中，表达此意义的up数量最多。例如：
You hear more or less serious arguments these days that earnings don't count, that interest rates are irrelevant, that the macro backdrop is a distraction. Otherwise erudite observers use the phrase “melt-up” in their analyses. Melt-up? It can't be a well thought-out market if it is represented by so unlikely an image.
It's a Knockout, and Sir Cliff Richard, why not a salon of musicians and historians, poets and scientists, endowed Royal Scholars, Royal Fellows, Royal Professors? Elitist? Of course it is, but who begrudges an élite that inspires the rest of us to dumb up and join it?
The reasons to buy an upconverting DVD player are compelling. Consider cost and performance. Are you really in a hurry to start a new HD-DVD or Blu-ray library at $30 to $40 a pop? Also, remember that you're facing a minimum $500 price tag for Toshiba’s entry-level player and a Blu-ray price of twice that amount. You can buy excellent upconverting players for $200 and breathe new life into your existing DVDs.
Mr. Kalin is big on 'upcycling,' a process whose name was coined by William McDonough, an architect, and Michael Braungart, a chemist, in their 2002 book, 'Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things.' They used the term to describe the process of taking something that's essentially waste and moving it up the consumer-goods chain. 'I love upcycling,' Mr. Kalin said. 'I love this idea of bringing something from lower down and elevating it.
The group will be responsible for commissioning a professional agency to prepare a feasibility report on the conservation, beautification, restoration and upgradation of the monument and the surrounding areas.
(c)在一起或合起来:
Twitter has been taken up so exuberantly by the connected community that it's now used by the MTV Music Video Awards, presidential candidate John Edwards, and even some news organizations and fire departments to communicate their urgent messages. Its own vocabulary has even emerged: As mentioned earlier, a Twitter post is called a “tweet,” and “tweetups” have taken place where “tweeps” have met up in the real world for social gatherings.
(d) 出现或创造：
Many legitimate advertisers on the Internet use windows that pop up in the middle of your screen to display a message. They might also open when you click a link or button on a Web site, and they might open either over or under the window you wish to view. Some pop-ups are helpful.
Electric supercars sex-up eco-friendly motoring.
4.3.3习语性
《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》对习语的定义为：作为一个单位使用的，意义不能从其独立的组成部分得出的一种表达法。《英语维基百科》认为：习语是一种意义不能从其各组成部分的字面意义推导出的表达法（术语或短语），其意义具有隐晦性与比喻性，只能通过规约化的使用才能得以体现。在语言学中，习语用以描述那些与常规语言的组合原则相抵触的自然语言，常被看作是一种修辞方法。新出现的短语动词从意义上可分为半习语性和完全习语性。半习语性指动词和小品词的关系就像构词法中词干和词缀的关系。例如短语动词trickle up（逐渐从一个层次升到更高层次）、stress out（筋疲力尽，虚弱不堪）、lock down（禁闭）、cool down（恢复正常体能状态）、veg out（过素食生活）等。在这类短语动词中，动词保留其原有的意义，而小品词的方向性已很难辨别。完全习语性的短语动词的意义比较晦涩难懂，人们很难猜测出其真正的含义。例如：carve-out（公司的某一部门独立出来成立新公司并在首次发行股票时出售部分股票的过程）、pull-aside（会外会：与会国的领袖、官员或外交官在正式会议以外的时间所举行的非正式会议）、sell through（录像带零售店）die for（好得要死，妙极了）等。
5.结论
综上所述，以最新英语报刊新闻语料库为研究基础并归纳出的102个新短语动词有如下特点：
第一：新短语动词的构成方式主要有：拼缀法、转类法、合成法和旧词新义四种。
第二：小品词up的构词能力较强。在这102个新短语动词中，有30个词是动词与小品词up组合在一起的。小品词出现频率最高的前8位依次为:up, out, in, off, down, back, over和forword.
第三：新短语动词的句法特点主要表现为：新短语动词分为及物短语动词和不及物短语动词。及物短语动词都是可分型短语动词.另外，新短语动词中出现了名词化特征。名词化的短语动词在语篇中的成分以主语、宾语、表语、同位语和定语为主。
第四：新短语动词的语义特征表现为：小品词的意义影响短语动词的意义。小品词在新短语动词中的作用主要有三种，即使动词具有一个新生意义；与动词搭配后，小品词具有新的或特殊意义，但并没有使动词的意义发生变化；小品词起强调作用或表示动作的完成。另外，习语性是新短语动词的显著特征。从意义上来看，新短语动词有半习语性和完全习语性的特点。
［参考文献］
［1］胡壮麟.语言学教程［M］.北京：北京大学出版社，2003.
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［13］Pride,J.B.& Janet Holmes. Sociolinguistics［M］. New York: Penguin USA, 1986.
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基金项目编号：天津市哲学社会科学规划项目（TJYW07-2065）
关键词：新短语动词；语料库；构成方式；句法特征；语义特征
1.引言
语言是社会政治、经济、思想、文化的象征，它是社会发展的一面镜子。语言的发展折射着社会的发展，时代的变迁和科技的进步。一定时期的新词新语是一定时期人们思维方式和生活方式的反映。1964年美国学者布赖特（J.B.Pride）在它的《社会语言学》中提出了“语言和社会结构的共变”的理论：当社会生活发生渐变或激变时，作为社会现象的语言会毫不含糊地随着社会生活进展的步伐而发生变化。语言作为社会必要的存在条件，作为一种特殊的社会现象，作为社会最主要的交际工具，它一方面对社会有绝对的依附性，另一方面它对社会的发展有应变性。语言要适应社会的变化着的交际需要而不断演变和发展。在语言和社会的变革中，他们相互接触，相互影响，相互作用，相互制约。社会生活的变化必然引起语言诸要素的变化，而语言同样地也反映着社会生活的方方面面。”
那么“新词”是如何界定的呢？一般而言，“新词”有两个含义：第一，从时间参照角度来说，新词可以是出现在某一时间段内或自某一时间点以来所首次出现的词汇，如2001年九月十一日美国遭到恐怖袭击后出现的新词汇：9/11，post September 11，hyperterrorism（超级恐怖主义）和shuicide bomber（人鞋炸弹）等；第二，从蓝本参照角度来说，新词指的是某一词典、一些词典或所有现有词典未曾收录的词汇，许多词典的增补版中收录的词汇就属于该范畴，如陆谷孙的《英汉大词典补编》中所收录的词汇。
英语的词汇有200多万个，并且以每年至少850个新词的速度增加，而在这些新词中，短语动词成为英语新词汇中的一个重要组成部分。这是因为在英语语言中，动词是最为活跃的词汇，它们与不同的小品词搭配组成新的短语动词，也是日常语言交流中很重要的部分。新的短语动词的出现顺应了日益发展的社会需求，丰富了英语的词汇，但是也增加了中国学生学习英语的难度。
2.文献综述
2.1 短语动词的定义
麦克阿瑟（McArthur，1998)指出“短语动词”这个术语是Logan Pearsall Smith在Words and Idiom(1925)首先使用的。短语动词是一种特殊的动词，它又被称为复合动词、动词-副词组合、动词-小品词结构和两部分词。不同的语言学家对短语动词的理解各有千秋。传统语法学家认为短语动词是动词与副词小品词的结合。例如：
I got up at 6 this morning.
He put off the meeting.
Dictionary of Idioms and Their Origins描述的短语动词是单音节简单动词（如put, take, get, etc.）和小品词（如on, out, up, etc.）的搭配。
An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages把短语动词定义为词汇动词和一个或多个小品词的组合，如sit down和come in.
Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs把短语动词分为三种类型：
第一种：动词+副词
The old lady was taken in (=deceived) by the salesman.
第二种：动词+介词
She set about (=started) making a new dress.
第三种：动词+副词+介词
I can’t put up with (=bear or suffer) him—he’s always complaining.
夸克(Quirk,1985)把动词与副词小品词的组合称为短语动词。短语动词可分为不及物短语动词和及物短语动词。例如:
The plane has just touched down.(不及物短语动词)
She turned up unexpectedly. （不及物短语动词）
We will set up a new unit. (及物短语动词)
They have blown up the bridge. （及物短语动词）
夸克（Quirk，1985）认为短语动词属于多词动词。多词动词包括短语动词（如drink up）、介词动词（如dispose of）和短语-介词动词（如get away with）.
克洛斯（Close，1975）将短语动词分成 4 种类型，即：
Type 1. verb + preposition + NP（名词短语） ：介词不重读，有被动语态，名词部分可以是名词或代词；
Type 2. verb + adverb particle:小品词要重读，无被动语态；
Type 3. verb + object + particle或 verb + particle + object:后跟宾语时，小品词要重读，宾语是名词时，小品词可置于名词前或后；宾语是人称代词时，一般情况下，必须位于小品词之前；
Type 4. verb + particle + preposition + NP:小品词要重读。
帕尔默(Palmer, 1974)指出：短语动词由两部分组成，即动词和副词小品词。副词小品词跟随在动词之后，它可以被看作是动词的一部分，就如同动词的后缀一样。有的短语动词表达的是字面意义，这时小品词表明动作的方向。例如：
He pulled up the rope.
有的短语动词的意义是完全习语性的，这时很难看出小品词的方向性。例如：
The enemy gave in.
The contestant gave up.
The old car gave out.
从以上定义可以看出，短语动词的定义有广义和狭义两种。从广义来讲，短语动词包括动词+副词小品词、动词+介词小品词和动词+副词+介词小品词。从狭义来说，短语动词是动词和副词小品词的组合。本篇论文采用的是短语动词的狭义定义。
2.2 小品词：
小品词往往与前面的动词形成修饰和补充说明的语义关系,本身不能单独充当句子成分和独自带宾语。小品词位于词汇动词之后，其词形固定不变，和动词组成一类特殊的动词。如：drink up, dispose of和get away with中的up, of, away, with。小品词又分为两个不同，但相互有重叠的类别，即介词小品词和方位副词小品词（有些副词小品词并不含有方位的含义）。夸克(Quirk:1151)把小品词分为：
(A) against, among, as, at, beside, for, from, into, like, of, onto, upon, with, etc.
(B) about, above, across, after, along, around, by, down, in, off, on, out
(C) aback, ahead, apart, aside, astray, away, back, forward(s), home, in front, on top, out
（A）中的词只能做介词，（C）中的词只能做方向副词，（B）中的词即能做介词又能做方向副词。介词和方向副词的最显著的区别在于：介词后面要跟随名词短语作为介词的补语，而副词并不需要。
2.3 短语动词与介词动词的区别
夸克（Quirk:1167））认为介词动词是词汇动词和介词小品词的组合，之所以用介词动词这一概念是因为句子中的名词短语被看做是介词的补语，而不是动词和介词组合的直接宾语。例如：
Look at these pictures.
Can you cope with the work?
I don’t care for Jane’s parties.
I approve of their action.
We must go into the problem.
His eyes lighted upon the jewel.
介词动词和短语动词的区别可从句法结构和语音特点加以说明。
（1）短语动词的小品词即可以紧随动词之后，又可以放在直接宾语之后，而介词动词中的介词只能置于动词之后。例如：
Everyone should look up this word.
Everyone should look this word up.
Someone needs to look at the carburetor.
*Someone needs to look the carburetor at.
(2) 如果直接宾语是人称代词，只有介词才能放在其前，副词必须位于其后。例如：
Someone needs to look at it.
Someone needs to look it up.
(3) 短语动词中的小品词与动词之间不能用修饰性副词分隔开，而介词动词可以。例如：
Someone needs to look carefully at the carburetor.
*Everyone should look carefully up this word.
(4) 短语动词中的小品词可以用在动名词ing形式之中，而介词动词中的介词不能出现在这样的语境中。例如：
The looking up of this word was a useful exercise.
*The looking at of the carburetor is a useful exercise.
(5) 短语动词中的小品词不能放在引导关系从句的关系代词之前，而介词动词中的介词可以。例如：
The man on whom they called was my brother.
*The man up whom they called was my brother.
(6) 同样，短语动词中的小品词不能出现在特殊疑问句中的疑问词之前。例如：
On which man did they call?
*Up which man did they call?
(7) 短语动词中的小品词通常是重读的，而介词动词中的动词往往加以重读。例如：
Which man did they call on?
Which man did they call up?
短语动词和介词动词的区别可以从下表更清楚地看出：
2.4短语动词的发展
（1）古英语时期（公元450—1100年）
在古英语时期，短语动词数量很少，其形式与现在的短语动词完全不同。小品词是动词的前缀，它与动词是密不可分的。拉蒙德（Lamont,2005）指出古英语有 “b?rnan” (to burn) 和“forb?rnan” (to burn up) 这两个词，前缀“for-”是动词的词缀，不能像现在的小品词那样移动。Akimoto认为古英语词的前缀通常位于动词之前的原因在于古英语的词序是宾语—动词（宾动）结构，而现代英语是动宾结构，因此在现代英语中，小品词位于动词之后。
（2）中古英语时期(公元1100—1500年)
豪克(Hogg,2006)认为，在中古英语时期，因动词前缀已逐渐失去意义，有些人就在动词后加上小品词。该小品词在读音上是重读的，这就为其保留了词汇意义。1066年，诺曼人征服英国。法语成为富人的语言和强有力的象征，在政治、宗教、法律、军事、社交、服饰、饮食等凡是与统治阶级有关的一切领域都有反映。法语词成了这些领域所用词语的主体。法语动词进入英语，这延缓了短语动词的发展。原因在于法语动词能够涵盖古英语前缀动词的意义。法语的语体也阻碍了短语动词的发展，这是因为在诺曼登陆英格兰后，法语成为官方语言，它被应用在法院、学校和宫廷中，而英语则是下层社会劳动者用的世俗语言，其中的短语动词被认为是非正式的文体。不过，1382年用英语书写的圣经出现，确立了英语的地位，英语成为英国的全民语言。在“文艺复兴”时期（14世纪-16世纪），由于人们对古希腊、古罗马文化表现出浓厚的研究兴趣，英语又吸收了大量古代社会及当时欧洲大陆文化精华，词汇大增，短语动词的数量也不断增加。到中古英语末期，短语动词有三种存在形式：a) 古英语时期的形式，即小品词+动词(understand, overtake)； b) 动词+小品词(take up, write up)；和c)由以上两种形式转化过来的复合名词(outcry, write-off)。
（3） 现代英语时期（1500——）
经历了文艺复兴运动、英国资产阶级革命和其后的工业革命，英帝国开始向外扩张，与世界各地的交往日趋频繁，全球各地的语言都有语汇进入了英语。后来随着二战后科学技术的迅猛发展，英语的词汇越来越丰富，这也使得短语动词的数量大大增多，并且出现了更为复杂的形式，即由动词+副词小品词+介词小品词三个部分组成。例如：
We are all looking forward to your party on Saturday.
He had to put up with a lot of teasing at school.
Why don’t you look in on Mrs. Johnson on your way back?
He thinks he can get away with everything.
3.数据的采集
本项研究的前提是建立一个最新英语报刊新闻语料库。为此，本人对2005年8月年至2009年3月间国内外报刊（主要是英美报刊）的文章进行摘录，建立了190多万字的最新英语报刊新闻语料库。在此基础上，找出最近5年出现的新短语动词，总共是102个，然后用语料库检索软件Wordsmith对其进行分析。
最近五年出现的新短语动词有：fakeaway, mash up, slough off, take off, beat out, back up, snuff out, write-in, wrap-up, come over, spin out, spin off, break up, go back, come across, carve out, drive-by, lean forward, pull-aside, swipe in, pop up, blow back, upskill, sex up, naff off, veg out, trickle up, stress(ed) out, sell through, pumped-up, plug-in, pin down, lock down, fast forward, fatigue out, dress down, die for, cool down, boot up, beat down, chill out, dumb up, lock in, melt up, makeover, pop-under, pose off, tweetup, shoo-out, talk off, upturkey, upconvert, upcycling, upgradate, upsell, upshift, boreout, downshift, upskirt, upstaff, zero out, work over, work-in, wind down, whipper in, weigh off, wedge up, wash-up, walk out, walk-up, walk-in, wait-in, voice over, turnover, tucked up, trade-off, staff out, shoo-in, show-out, ship over, set-up, run up, runoff, roorback, roll-out, roll up,read off, read in, party-back, outfit, bail out, opt out, swipe out, trickle down, kick off, kick- back, fit up, claw-back, calk off, brew-up, blow off和black-out。
出现频率最高的前10位新短语动词分别是：back up, borout, mashup, cool down, pop under, upsell, downshift, zero out, pull aside和tweetup。
4.分析和讨论
4.1新短语动词的构成方式
新短语动词的构成方式主要分以下四种：
（1）拼缀法 (blending)
拼缀法是将两个词的某一部分合并或者在一个词的基础上加上另一个词的一部分而构成新词的方法。用这种方法构成的词被称为拼缀词（blends），又叫混成词、行囊词或缩合词。例如：fakeaway (blend of fake and takeaway:a homemade meal that is similar to a takeaway meal purchased from a restaurant自制或家里做的外带餐点), tweetup (blend of twitter and meetup:a real world meeting between two or more people who know each other through the online Twitter service指 Twitter 用户之间的聚会)。
（2）转类法(conversion)
转类法，又称“零位派生”，是指通过词类转化构成新词的方法。即一种词类加上零形式转化为另一种词类，词的原形不变，但转类后的词形体系和语法功能都改变了。例如: zero out (to end a voice mail message by pressing 0按零键结束语音留言), pull-aside (an informal meeting between leaders, officials, or diplomats at a public event会外会).
(3) 合成（synthesis）
在这类短语动词中，动词和小品词都是已存在的词，他们组合在一起形成新的短语动词。如：sell through（录像带零售店），wedge up（为抗议或防止狱吏的鞭打，犯人将牢门揳牢）,swipe in/swipe out(持身份识別卡在电子读卡机上刷卡来进出安全措施严密的场所或设施)等。
（4）旧词新义
旧词新义是指原有的短语动词增加了新的含义。如：back up（计算机资料的备份），plug-in(计算机插件), roll out (影片逐渐在众多影院上映)等。
4.2新短语动词的句法特征
（1）不及物短语动词
不及物短语动词是由动词和副词小品词构成，其后不能接宾语。例如：
They are taking off (make great progress) because the hardware has gotten to the point where it is possible and the software has achieved a bit of maturity, especially with Google Maps,“ said Rich Gibson, co-author of the book ”Mapping Hacks.
You're BREAKING UP (become inaudible over the telephone because of interference); I'll call you back in a minute and see if we get a better connection.
He and I GO BACK a long way- we were at school together.
Of course it is, but who begrudges an elite that inspires the rest of us to dumb up (to make an item seem more highbrow by adding token cultural artifacts; to raise one's intellectual and cultural values) and join it?
在这类短语动词中，小品词的作用如同谓体附加状语，通常不能与词汇动词分开。
（2）及物短语动词
及物短语动词可以带直接宾语。它又分为可分型短语动词(separable phrasal verbs)和粘着型短语动词(fused phrasal verbs)。在新出现的短语动词中，作为及物动词的短语动词都是可分型短语动词。可分型短语动词是指动词和小品词可以分开。如：
For all these options, your only real expense is a hard drive on which to back up your data.
For all these options, your only real expense is a hard drive on which to back your data up.
（3）新短语动词的名词化
根据《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》（Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics）(Richards,2000),名词化是“指把其他词性的词，一般为动词或形容词，变成名词的语法过程。”名词化的新短语动词共有41个，其结构分为三大类：左分支结构（left branching）和右分支结构(right branching)。左分支结构是指“小品词+动词”，右分支结构指“动词+小品词”。在新出现的名词化短语动词中，左分支结构有9 个，右分支结构有29 个。另外，还有以动名词或分词+小品词构成的名词化短语动词，共有3个：fakeaway, mash up, write-in, wrap-up, carve out, drive-by, pull-aside, trade-off, upskill, stressed out, pumped-up, plug-in, sell through, pop up, make over, beat down, lock in, melt up, pose off, pose down, talk off, upturkey, upconvert, upcycling, upgradate, upsell, upshift, boreout, downshift, upstaff, upskirt, work-in, wash-up, walk-up, walk-in, wait-in, voice over, turnover, tucked up, shoo-in和shoo-out。
名词化的新短语动词在句中可以做主语、宾语、定语、表语和同位语等。例如：
Along the way, map mashups are providing perhaps the clearest idea yet of commercial applications for the generation of so-called social technologies they represent. (作主语)
Mr George Bush, had a short “pull-aside” meeting on the sidelines of the G-8 summit. （作定语）
For many the word downshifting means simply giving up the rat race of 9 to 5 living in a large town or City and moving to the Country, buying a house, preferablt Cottage, with a bit of land and living the leisurely life of self-sufficiency.（作同位语）
Alright, the original reas on we created this site was to host a little tweetup for the Huntsville based twitter’ers. (作宾语）
What is upskirt? (作表语)
4.3新短语动词的语义特征
4.3.1英语学习者对新短语动词意义理解困难的原因
对英语学习者来说，新短语动词学习起来是一个难题，主要原因如下：
第一，新短语动词由常用动词和副词构成，如 zero out, die for 和 swipe in。如果词的整体意义与构成词的两部分合起来的意义相同时，学习者就很容易理解了。但在许多情况下，只了解构成短语动词的两部分的意义，学习者却不能理解词的整体意义。例如：
Along the way, map mashups are providing perhaps the clearest idea yet of commercial applications for the generation of so-called social technologies they represent.
第二，某些小品词如up, on, off, back等与常用动词如come, go, make, put等极易构成短语动词，然而我们事先并不知道哪个动词与哪个小品词组合在一起构成新的短语动词。
第三，现已存在的词汇在特定的语境中又有了新的含义。例如back up用在计算机领域指拷贝文件资料。
You should always BACK UP important files and documents so that you won't lose all your work if something goes wrong with the hardware.
第四，短语动词中有的小品词既可以作副词,又可以作介词,难于判定该短语动词是及物动词还是不及物动词,也难于判定小品词在语言中的位置。
鉴于以上原因，我们有必要深入详细地探析新短语动词的语义特点，这样英语学习者就能采用一种自觉、有意识的方法学习新短语动词，从而在实际应用中避免混淆、歧义和用法不当。
4.3.2小品词的意义影响短语动词的意义
作为短语动词中的重要组成部分，小品词的意义对整个短语动词的意义影响很大。在这102个新短语动词中，小品词出现频率最高的前8个如下：up, out, in, off, down, back, over和forward。
小品词在新短语动词中所起的作用主要有三种：
第一种：使动词具有一个新生意义，如：
If economy and health concerns put you off high street sandwiches, you could find inspiration for making your own tasty fakeaways in new book Sandwiches, Panini and Wraps. (a homemade meal that is similar to a takeaway meal purchased from a restaurant)
Talk-off occurs when the device tries to translate voice to digits. Some people with gravelly voices trigger invalid conversions that can mess up a transaction. I had several of these units translate my voice into DTMF tones during testing. (An automated phone system problem in which people with certain kinds of voices produce sounds identical to phone tones)
第二种：与动词搭配后，小品词具有新的或特殊意义，但并没有使动词的意义发生变化，如：
A prime example is X10.com's pop-under ads for their wireless video cameras. X10's pop-under ads were popping up on prime media sites like MSN, the N.Y. Times and Alta Vista. (a Web site ad that opens in a separate browser window hidden under the current browser window)
第三种：小品词起强调作用或表示动作的完成，如：
In September, regional winners will meet in Los Angeles in a pose-off for the national title, with the champion crowned by Bikram Choudhury, the iconoclastic and occasionally outrageous founder of Bikram yoga. (a competition in which one contestant attempts to strike better poses than another, especially in bodybuilding)
以小品词up为例，在这102个新短语动词中，有30个词是动词与小品词up组合在一起的，其造词能力很强。Up在这些新短语动词中的意义分为以下四种：
(a) 准备和开始
Up与动词搭配，表明事情正在准备之中或正在开始。例如：
You have to be kidding me that we have to boot up the TV in the bedroom.
(b) 价格等的提高、质量的增强和改善
在这些由up与动词组合的新短语动词中，表达此意义的up数量最多。例如：
You hear more or less serious arguments these days that earnings don't count, that interest rates are irrelevant, that the macro backdrop is a distraction. Otherwise erudite observers use the phrase “melt-up” in their analyses. Melt-up? It can't be a well thought-out market if it is represented by so unlikely an image.
It's a Knockout, and Sir Cliff Richard, why not a salon of musicians and historians, poets and scientists, endowed Royal Scholars, Royal Fellows, Royal Professors? Elitist? Of course it is, but who begrudges an élite that inspires the rest of us to dumb up and join it?
The reasons to buy an upconverting DVD player are compelling. Consider cost and performance. Are you really in a hurry to start a new HD-DVD or Blu-ray library at $30 to $40 a pop? Also, remember that you're facing a minimum $500 price tag for Toshiba’s entry-level player and a Blu-ray price of twice that amount. You can buy excellent upconverting players for $200 and breathe new life into your existing DVDs.
Mr. Kalin is big on 'upcycling,' a process whose name was coined by William McDonough, an architect, and Michael Braungart, a chemist, in their 2002 book, 'Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things.' They used the term to describe the process of taking something that's essentially waste and moving it up the consumer-goods chain. 'I love upcycling,' Mr. Kalin said. 'I love this idea of bringing something from lower down and elevating it.
The group will be responsible for commissioning a professional agency to prepare a feasibility report on the conservation, beautification, restoration and upgradation of the monument and the surrounding areas.
(c)在一起或合起来:
Twitter has been taken up so exuberantly by the connected community that it's now used by the MTV Music Video Awards, presidential candidate John Edwards, and even some news organizations and fire departments to communicate their urgent messages. Its own vocabulary has even emerged: As mentioned earlier, a Twitter post is called a “tweet,” and “tweetups” have taken place where “tweeps” have met up in the real world for social gatherings.
(d) 出现或创造：
Many legitimate advertisers on the Internet use windows that pop up in the middle of your screen to display a message. They might also open when you click a link or button on a Web site, and they might open either over or under the window you wish to view. Some pop-ups are helpful.
Electric supercars sex-up eco-friendly motoring.
4.3.3习语性
《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》对习语的定义为：作为一个单位使用的，意义不能从其独立的组成部分得出的一种表达法。《英语维基百科》认为：习语是一种意义不能从其各组成部分的字面意义推导出的表达法（术语或短语），其意义具有隐晦性与比喻性，只能通过规约化的使用才能得以体现。在语言学中，习语用以描述那些与常规语言的组合原则相抵触的自然语言，常被看作是一种修辞方法。新出现的短语动词从意义上可分为半习语性和完全习语性。半习语性指动词和小品词的关系就像构词法中词干和词缀的关系。例如短语动词trickle up（逐渐从一个层次升到更高层次）、stress out（筋疲力尽，虚弱不堪）、lock down（禁闭）、cool down（恢复正常体能状态）、veg out（过素食生活）等。在这类短语动词中，动词保留其原有的意义，而小品词的方向性已很难辨别。完全习语性的短语动词的意义比较晦涩难懂，人们很难猜测出其真正的含义。例如：carve-out（公司的某一部门独立出来成立新公司并在首次发行股票时出售部分股票的过程）、pull-aside（会外会：与会国的领袖、官员或外交官在正式会议以外的时间所举行的非正式会议）、sell through（录像带零售店）die for（好得要死，妙极了）等。
5.结论
综上所述，以最新英语报刊新闻语料库为研究基础并归纳出的102个新短语动词有如下特点：
第一：新短语动词的构成方式主要有：拼缀法、转类法、合成法和旧词新义四种。
第二：小品词up的构词能力较强。在这102个新短语动词中，有30个词是动词与小品词up组合在一起的。小品词出现频率最高的前8位依次为:up, out, in, off, down, back, over和forword.
第三：新短语动词的句法特点主要表现为：新短语动词分为及物短语动词和不及物短语动词。及物短语动词都是可分型短语动词.另外，新短语动词中出现了名词化特征。名词化的短语动词在语篇中的成分以主语、宾语、表语、同位语和定语为主。
第四：新短语动词的语义特征表现为：小品词的意义影响短语动词的意义。小品词在新短语动词中的作用主要有三种，即使动词具有一个新生意义；与动词搭配后，小品词具有新的或特殊意义，但并没有使动词的意义发生变化；小品词起强调作用或表示动作的完成。另外，习语性是新短语动词的显著特征。从意义上来看，新短语动词有半习语性和完全习语性的特点。
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基金项目编号：天津市哲学社会科学规划项目（TJYW07-2065）