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摘 要: adj. to do构式对许多英语教育者来说都是一个难以解决的教学难点。本文按照构式语法方法对这一构式进行了分类,提出可以根据形容词的语义、语用特征及不定式的功能特征将其分成四种类型,并对这种构式用法特点作了一定探讨。
关键词: 构式语法 形容词 adj. to do构式
1.引言
形容词的语法、语义和语用特征一直以来受语言研究者的关注。如Quirk,John Sinclair等就对形容词进行了分类研究。还有许多语法家分析了英语形容词句式的结构和语法功能。其中adj. to do结构几乎受到了所有语法研究的关注。李香玲就从认知语言学的常规关系的视角探讨了“NP AP to VP”英语形容词句式的形成理据。但对于这一结构的分析都存在对AP的功能分析不足的现象。这对许多英语教育者来说都是一个很难解决的教学难点。本文将按照构式语法方法对adj. to do构式中AP的功能特征进行分析,并根据不同的功能特征对adj.及adj. to do构式的分类及其运用进行一次开创性的探讨。
2.adj. to do构式
近年来,由Goldberg等人开创的构式语法(construction grammar)中,“构式”(construction)被定义为形式和意义对(form and meaning pairings)。语言形式和意义按惯例联系起来就形成了语法构式的概念。只要是语言形式和意义按照惯例联系起来形成的构式,就是构式语法研究的对象。所有层次的语法描写都可以理解为涉及语言形式与意义或者话语功能的配对,即都涉及构式的概念。[2]adj. to do结构就是以形容詞为构式素的构式。例如,“He must be careful not to say foolish things to Paul.”这一构式(斜体部分)中,形容词起说明和修饰作用,可在句中作表语、定语和宾语补足语,“to do”是依附在形容词之上的,作状语,表示形容词所描述的特征的原因或结果等。它与“it(先行词)is adj. to do”句型有很大区别。在这个句型中,不定式“to do”是句子的述元,“is adj.”是谓词,形容词作表语对述元没有限制作用。因此,本文所论adj. to do结构不包括“it is adj. to do”句型。
3.adj. to do构式的形容词分类
语法书中对接不定式作宾语的动词归纳统计很多,但对形容词接不定式的情况缺少系统充分的统计,多为分析句型结构时的附带之笔。其实形容词接不定式虽不像动词接不定式那样具有刚性,但也不是任何一个形容词都能接不定式的。经研究分析,发现用于adj. to do结构的形容词仅120个左右。它们可以根据不同作用和所接不定式的不同作用分为表情态、表情感、表气质和表状态等类型。请看下面例句:
1)He is afraid to refuse.
2)He was very excited to go walking in such weather.
3)Don’t be so naive to be taken in by their lies.
4)The water is cool enough to drink.
例1中,形容词描写主语的情态。例2中,形容词描述主语的情感。例3中,形容词描述主语的气质。例4中形容词描述主语的状态。
3.1表情态的形容词。
有些形容词与不定式连用,表示主语有能力、可能、必要、必须、易于、决心、渴望、愿意、注定做某事,如:able,afraid,anxious,apt,ashamed,bound,careful,certain,curious,desirous,determined,doomed,doubtful,due,eager,easy,fated,fit,free,inclined,interested,keen,liable,likely,loath,prompt,prepared,prone,ready,quick,reluctant,scheduled,slow,supposed,sure,swift,unable,unfit,unlikely,unwilling,wild,willing,worthy等。其中able,fit,quick,slow,swift,unable,unfit等词可表能力;afraid,anxious,ashamed,careful,certain,desirous,determined,doubtful,eager,free,inclined,interested,keen,reluctant,sure,unwilling,wild,willing等词可表意愿。这类形容词的一个突出的特点就是,与之连用的不定式有时可以理解为形容词的宾语,有时可以认为是与形容词一起作谓语。有些词如apt,anxious,eager,inclined,ready等词之前还可以加“too”,但不表示否定。例如:
5)Sophia was very careful to make no observation.
6)I was curious to know what he would say.
7)They are wild to go.
8)I’m ashamed to let you see my painting.
9)I’m doubtful where to go.
10)She was too ready to be angry at others.
例5中“be careful to do”意为“make sure that sb. do”。例6、7中的curious和wild都表示“迫切想”。例8中“ashamed to do”表示“reluctant to do because of shame”。例5—7可以理解为“be adj. to do”一起作谓语。例8和9理解为不定式作“be adj.”系表结构的宾语更符合逻辑。例10中“too...to”表肯定。
3.2表情感的形容词。
有些表示喜怒哀乐等情感的形容词可与不定式连用,如:content,crazy,delighted,disappointed,excited,frightened,glad,happy, mad, pleased, proud, relieved, sad, scared, sorry, surprised, thankful, thrilled, tough, upset, wise等。此外还有lucky,fortunate, right, unfortunate, wrong等几个不表情感的形容词也可用于这种结构。在这种结构中,不定式一般表形容词所表示的情感的原因,有时也可作结果状语。这些词多可用于“too adj. to do”结构。不定式表结果时,“too...to do”意为“太……不能做”,表示否定意义。不定式表原因时,如“too glad/happy/pleased/satisfied to do”意为“太(喜欢/高兴)做”,不定式是肯定意义。例如:
11)She must be tough to have been survived such a serious illness.
12)She was frightened to look down from the top of the tall building.
13)He was thankful to have someone to talk to.
14)He is unfortunate not to win the race.
15)You were wrong to take the car without permission.
16)She was only too glad to hush the matter up.
17)She was too frightened to run away when she heard the explosion.
18)The boy was too excited to fall asleep.
例11—16中的不定式均作状语表原因。例16中的“too glad to hush the matter up”意为“巴不得把这事掩盖起来”,表肯定。例17、18两句中不定式表结果,“too...to”意为“太……不能”,表否定。
3.3表气质的形容词。
有些表示人的气质或形体的形容词也可与不定式连用,如:bold, careless, clever, foolish, good, graceful, gracious, ill, kind, naive, old, partial, powerless, selfish, short, shy, skilled, sleepy, slight, small, strong, stubborn, stupid, superficial, tall, tied, truthful, weak, young等。在这种结构中,不定式多作结果状语,一般要与“adj. enough to do”,“so adj. as to do”或者“too adj. to do”连用。还有complex,expensive,loose等少数形容词也可用于这种结构。例如:
19)He was bold enough to ask her a question.
20)Gold is too expensive to be used as a conductor.
21)I was foolish enough to believe him.
22)She is graceful enough to be a dancer.
23)He was so good as/good enough to lend me enough money.
24)Her logic is too loose to make much sense.
25)The fence is strong enough to keep the cows.
26)Edith is too truthful to lie about anything.
27)He is too superficial to appreciate the deep feeling in the play.
3.4表狀态的形容词。
有些表示状态的形容词也可与不定式连用,如:complicated,cool,difficult,dry,easy,fit,gentle,good,hard,heavy,high,hot,much,narrow,perilous,plain,pleasant,shallow,soft,steady,terrible,thin,unfit,weak,wide等。请看例句:
28)The theory is too complicated to explain.
29)The coffee is cool enough to drink.
30)That dish was too shallow to serve soup in.
31)Bossinney would be easy to deal with in money matters.
32)The path was easy to follow.
33)The food was not fit to eat.
34)Its flesh is good to eat.
35)That man was hard to please.
36)I was hard to convince.
37)She was difficult to understand at times.
有时也可用for引导不定式动作的执行者,如:
38)The box is too heavy for me to carry.
39)The shelf is too high for me to reach.
40)The horse is gentle enough for the children to ride.
这种结构中,主语是不定式的承受者,形容词后的不定式是反身不定式,作状语,有时表结果,如例28—30和例38—40;有时表条件,如例31—37。
4.adj. to do构式的运用
4.1这一构式并不适用于所有的形容词。
根椐构式语法方法,构式可以统一和归纳众多的语言事实。但这个构式到底能涵盖多少语言事实呢?从目前的应用看,广泛接受的观点是只要符合逻辑的都是可以的。其实事实并非如此。请看下面例句:
*41)I felt very foolish to have to stand up and give a speech.
*42)The drawer is too tight to open.
*43)John was careless to break the window.
*44)He was stupid to make such a mistake.
*45)The garden is beautiful to look at.
以上例句均不妥。例41“foolish”之后接不定式一般表结果。例42中“tight”就不接不定式表结果。例43、44中表结果的不定式一般要与“adj. enough to do”,“so adj. as to do”或者“too adj. to do”连用。例45中“beautiful”不能用于反身不定式。以上各句应分别改为:
41)I felt vey foolish having to stand up and give a speech.
42)The draw is so tight that it can’t be opened.
43)John was so careless as to break the window.
44)He was so stupid as to make such a mistake.
45)The garden looks beautiful.
4.2形容词也有主动和被动语态之分。
普遍认为形容词是有主动和被动之分的。由现在分词变来的形容词表主动,由过去分词变来的形容词表被动。一些同源形容词如respectful,respectable,tolerant,tolerable等也有主动和被动之分。[3]反身不定式说明动作的承受者,但要用不定式的主动语态,原因就在于被动意义已由形容词表达出来。形容词easy,difficult,hard等含有被动意义,beautiful,desirable等含有主动意义。请看例句:(王寅,2003:231)
46)She is a beautiful and desirable woman.
47)This experiment is easy to do.
4.3“it is adj.(of sb)to do”与“sb./sth. be adj. to do”两个句式不能相互转换。
“it is adj.(of sb.)to do”与“sb./sth. be adj. to do”两个句式不能转换。但很多语法书都提到以上两个句式可以相互转换。如:
48)It was careless of him to break the window.
可以转换成:
*49)He was careless to break the window.(正确的说法为:He was so careless as to break the window.)
这样的转换不是意义相同的转换。两个句子只能看成是意义比较接近,而不是完全相同。例48中不定式作主语,语气平和,主要是陈述事实。而例49中“he”作主语,主要是評价事件,语气比较强烈。另外,这样的句式转换只得到了国内的一些语法研究者认同,而没有得到权威工具书的认同。如《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》就没有一个这种所谓的同义转换实例。
5.结语
综上所述,adj. to do构式中的形容词及构式本身可以根据形容词和其后的不定式两者各自的功能划分为四种类型。这种分类方法具有科学性。它既符合构式语法方法,也符合语义学和语用学原则。语法书对这种构式多只是点到为止,这给教学和学习都带来了许多不便。本文的总结和分析为了解adj. to do构式提供了新的方法。
参考文献:
[1]李香玲.形容词句式NP AP toVP的认知研究[J].宜宾学院学报,2008,(10):102-105.
[2]谢应光.构式语法与英语体义研究[J].四川外语学院学报,2007,(1):96-101.
[3]任玉萍,王琦,邓蓉年.语义背景下的形容词分类研究[J].宁波大红鹰职业技术学院学报,2006,(4):122-127.
[4]王寅.语义理论与语言教学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2003.
[5]张道真.实用英语语法[M].北京:商务印书馆,2003.
[6]章振邦.新编英语语法[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1997.
[7]王国栋.英语深层语法[M].北京:商务印书馆,2005.
[8]张成祎.大学英语语法手册[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2005.
[9]John Sinclair著,任绍曾译.英语语法大全[M].北京:商务印书馆,2001.
[10]John Sinclair.Collins Cobuild Learner’s Dictionary[M].北京:商务印书馆,2001.
[11]Hornby.Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary[M].北京:商务印书馆,2002.
[12]张道真.现代英语用法词典[M].北京:商务印书馆,1984.
关键词: 构式语法 形容词 adj. to do构式
1.引言
形容词的语法、语义和语用特征一直以来受语言研究者的关注。如Quirk,John Sinclair等就对形容词进行了分类研究。还有许多语法家分析了英语形容词句式的结构和语法功能。其中adj. to do结构几乎受到了所有语法研究的关注。李香玲就从认知语言学的常规关系的视角探讨了“NP AP to VP”英语形容词句式的形成理据。但对于这一结构的分析都存在对AP的功能分析不足的现象。这对许多英语教育者来说都是一个很难解决的教学难点。本文将按照构式语法方法对adj. to do构式中AP的功能特征进行分析,并根据不同的功能特征对adj.及adj. to do构式的分类及其运用进行一次开创性的探讨。
2.adj. to do构式
近年来,由Goldberg等人开创的构式语法(construction grammar)中,“构式”(construction)被定义为形式和意义对(form and meaning pairings)。语言形式和意义按惯例联系起来就形成了语法构式的概念。只要是语言形式和意义按照惯例联系起来形成的构式,就是构式语法研究的对象。所有层次的语法描写都可以理解为涉及语言形式与意义或者话语功能的配对,即都涉及构式的概念。[2]adj. to do结构就是以形容詞为构式素的构式。例如,“He must be careful not to say foolish things to Paul.”这一构式(斜体部分)中,形容词起说明和修饰作用,可在句中作表语、定语和宾语补足语,“to do”是依附在形容词之上的,作状语,表示形容词所描述的特征的原因或结果等。它与“it(先行词)is adj. to do”句型有很大区别。在这个句型中,不定式“to do”是句子的述元,“is adj.”是谓词,形容词作表语对述元没有限制作用。因此,本文所论adj. to do结构不包括“it is adj. to do”句型。
3.adj. to do构式的形容词分类
语法书中对接不定式作宾语的动词归纳统计很多,但对形容词接不定式的情况缺少系统充分的统计,多为分析句型结构时的附带之笔。其实形容词接不定式虽不像动词接不定式那样具有刚性,但也不是任何一个形容词都能接不定式的。经研究分析,发现用于adj. to do结构的形容词仅120个左右。它们可以根据不同作用和所接不定式的不同作用分为表情态、表情感、表气质和表状态等类型。请看下面例句:
1)He is afraid to refuse.
2)He was very excited to go walking in such weather.
3)Don’t be so naive to be taken in by their lies.
4)The water is cool enough to drink.
例1中,形容词描写主语的情态。例2中,形容词描述主语的情感。例3中,形容词描述主语的气质。例4中形容词描述主语的状态。
3.1表情态的形容词。
有些形容词与不定式连用,表示主语有能力、可能、必要、必须、易于、决心、渴望、愿意、注定做某事,如:able,afraid,anxious,apt,ashamed,bound,careful,certain,curious,desirous,determined,doomed,doubtful,due,eager,easy,fated,fit,free,inclined,interested,keen,liable,likely,loath,prompt,prepared,prone,ready,quick,reluctant,scheduled,slow,supposed,sure,swift,unable,unfit,unlikely,unwilling,wild,willing,worthy等。其中able,fit,quick,slow,swift,unable,unfit等词可表能力;afraid,anxious,ashamed,careful,certain,desirous,determined,doubtful,eager,free,inclined,interested,keen,reluctant,sure,unwilling,wild,willing等词可表意愿。这类形容词的一个突出的特点就是,与之连用的不定式有时可以理解为形容词的宾语,有时可以认为是与形容词一起作谓语。有些词如apt,anxious,eager,inclined,ready等词之前还可以加“too”,但不表示否定。例如:
5)Sophia was very careful to make no observation.
6)I was curious to know what he would say.
7)They are wild to go.
8)I’m ashamed to let you see my painting.
9)I’m doubtful where to go.
10)She was too ready to be angry at others.
例5中“be careful to do”意为“make sure that sb. do”。例6、7中的curious和wild都表示“迫切想”。例8中“ashamed to do”表示“reluctant to do because of shame”。例5—7可以理解为“be adj. to do”一起作谓语。例8和9理解为不定式作“be adj.”系表结构的宾语更符合逻辑。例10中“too...to”表肯定。
3.2表情感的形容词。
有些表示喜怒哀乐等情感的形容词可与不定式连用,如:content,crazy,delighted,disappointed,excited,frightened,glad,happy, mad, pleased, proud, relieved, sad, scared, sorry, surprised, thankful, thrilled, tough, upset, wise等。此外还有lucky,fortunate, right, unfortunate, wrong等几个不表情感的形容词也可用于这种结构。在这种结构中,不定式一般表形容词所表示的情感的原因,有时也可作结果状语。这些词多可用于“too adj. to do”结构。不定式表结果时,“too...to do”意为“太……不能做”,表示否定意义。不定式表原因时,如“too glad/happy/pleased/satisfied to do”意为“太(喜欢/高兴)做”,不定式是肯定意义。例如:
11)She must be tough to have been survived such a serious illness.
12)She was frightened to look down from the top of the tall building.
13)He was thankful to have someone to talk to.
14)He is unfortunate not to win the race.
15)You were wrong to take the car without permission.
16)She was only too glad to hush the matter up.
17)She was too frightened to run away when she heard the explosion.
18)The boy was too excited to fall asleep.
例11—16中的不定式均作状语表原因。例16中的“too glad to hush the matter up”意为“巴不得把这事掩盖起来”,表肯定。例17、18两句中不定式表结果,“too...to”意为“太……不能”,表否定。
3.3表气质的形容词。
有些表示人的气质或形体的形容词也可与不定式连用,如:bold, careless, clever, foolish, good, graceful, gracious, ill, kind, naive, old, partial, powerless, selfish, short, shy, skilled, sleepy, slight, small, strong, stubborn, stupid, superficial, tall, tied, truthful, weak, young等。在这种结构中,不定式多作结果状语,一般要与“adj. enough to do”,“so adj. as to do”或者“too adj. to do”连用。还有complex,expensive,loose等少数形容词也可用于这种结构。例如:
19)He was bold enough to ask her a question.
20)Gold is too expensive to be used as a conductor.
21)I was foolish enough to believe him.
22)She is graceful enough to be a dancer.
23)He was so good as/good enough to lend me enough money.
24)Her logic is too loose to make much sense.
25)The fence is strong enough to keep the cows.
26)Edith is too truthful to lie about anything.
27)He is too superficial to appreciate the deep feeling in the play.
3.4表狀态的形容词。
有些表示状态的形容词也可与不定式连用,如:complicated,cool,difficult,dry,easy,fit,gentle,good,hard,heavy,high,hot,much,narrow,perilous,plain,pleasant,shallow,soft,steady,terrible,thin,unfit,weak,wide等。请看例句:
28)The theory is too complicated to explain.
29)The coffee is cool enough to drink.
30)That dish was too shallow to serve soup in.
31)Bossinney would be easy to deal with in money matters.
32)The path was easy to follow.
33)The food was not fit to eat.
34)Its flesh is good to eat.
35)That man was hard to please.
36)I was hard to convince.
37)She was difficult to understand at times.
有时也可用for引导不定式动作的执行者,如:
38)The box is too heavy for me to carry.
39)The shelf is too high for me to reach.
40)The horse is gentle enough for the children to ride.
这种结构中,主语是不定式的承受者,形容词后的不定式是反身不定式,作状语,有时表结果,如例28—30和例38—40;有时表条件,如例31—37。
4.adj. to do构式的运用
4.1这一构式并不适用于所有的形容词。
根椐构式语法方法,构式可以统一和归纳众多的语言事实。但这个构式到底能涵盖多少语言事实呢?从目前的应用看,广泛接受的观点是只要符合逻辑的都是可以的。其实事实并非如此。请看下面例句:
*41)I felt very foolish to have to stand up and give a speech.
*42)The drawer is too tight to open.
*43)John was careless to break the window.
*44)He was stupid to make such a mistake.
*45)The garden is beautiful to look at.
以上例句均不妥。例41“foolish”之后接不定式一般表结果。例42中“tight”就不接不定式表结果。例43、44中表结果的不定式一般要与“adj. enough to do”,“so adj. as to do”或者“too adj. to do”连用。例45中“beautiful”不能用于反身不定式。以上各句应分别改为:
41)I felt vey foolish having to stand up and give a speech.
42)The draw is so tight that it can’t be opened.
43)John was so careless as to break the window.
44)He was so stupid as to make such a mistake.
45)The garden looks beautiful.
4.2形容词也有主动和被动语态之分。
普遍认为形容词是有主动和被动之分的。由现在分词变来的形容词表主动,由过去分词变来的形容词表被动。一些同源形容词如respectful,respectable,tolerant,tolerable等也有主动和被动之分。[3]反身不定式说明动作的承受者,但要用不定式的主动语态,原因就在于被动意义已由形容词表达出来。形容词easy,difficult,hard等含有被动意义,beautiful,desirable等含有主动意义。请看例句:(王寅,2003:231)
46)She is a beautiful and desirable woman.
47)This experiment is easy to do.
4.3“it is adj.(of sb)to do”与“sb./sth. be adj. to do”两个句式不能相互转换。
“it is adj.(of sb.)to do”与“sb./sth. be adj. to do”两个句式不能转换。但很多语法书都提到以上两个句式可以相互转换。如:
48)It was careless of him to break the window.
可以转换成:
*49)He was careless to break the window.(正确的说法为:He was so careless as to break the window.)
这样的转换不是意义相同的转换。两个句子只能看成是意义比较接近,而不是完全相同。例48中不定式作主语,语气平和,主要是陈述事实。而例49中“he”作主语,主要是評价事件,语气比较强烈。另外,这样的句式转换只得到了国内的一些语法研究者认同,而没有得到权威工具书的认同。如《牛津高阶英汉双解词典》就没有一个这种所谓的同义转换实例。
5.结语
综上所述,adj. to do构式中的形容词及构式本身可以根据形容词和其后的不定式两者各自的功能划分为四种类型。这种分类方法具有科学性。它既符合构式语法方法,也符合语义学和语用学原则。语法书对这种构式多只是点到为止,这给教学和学习都带来了许多不便。本文的总结和分析为了解adj. to do构式提供了新的方法。
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