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【Abstract】Language transfer has long been a critical issue in second language acqusition.Definitions of language transfer also reveal reserchers’effort to discover the hard way towards insights .
【Key words】language Transfer； definitions； consrtaints； manefestations
Generally speaking，the theory of language transfer has been assessed in three stages： approval and application； criticism and even complete ignorance； and rediscovery and reassessment.
In the 1950s，language transfer used to be regarded as the most essential factor to take into consideration in the research of second language acquisition and in approaches to foreign language teaching.It was believed that similarities between the mother tongue and target language facilitate the process of target language learning，while differences hinder it.It was also firmly believed that the learner’s difficulties and errors could be predicted through the scientific contrast of the native and target languages.
In the late 1960s and the whole 1970s language transfers met with critiques and even total ignorance on a few accounts.Firstly，the hypothesis mentioned above encountered serious challenges，because it had been proved questionable by the findings of some research.Secondly，some empirical researches showed that not all the errors committed by second language learners were due to the transfer of their native language and that not all the errors predicted through contrast of the native and target languages did appear in the output of the learners’ language.Therefore，some researchers even “denied the existence of language transfer in their enthusiasm for UG-oriented explanations”.（Ringbom，1987，p.1） Since the early 1980s，however，especially after the Interlanguage Hypothesis came into being，language transfer studies have regained attention.A more balanced perspective has emerged，in which the role of language transfer is acknowledged so that language transfer is believed to interact with many other factors in ways not yet fully understood.
Since the issue concerning language transfer was firstly raised by Selinker （1969），many linguists have attempted to define it from various perspectives，although it is a tough job to give a clear and convincing definition.According to Yu Liming （2004），the complication of the definition shows the immature development on the issue of language transfer.So，examining the definitions of language transfer is bound to offer us more perspectives and perceptions to get insight into the issue of language transfer. F?rch and Kasper （1987） define language transfer as the process in which second language learners’ active native language knowledge develops their interlanguage，and point out that it may either support or detract from learning.O’Malley and Chamot （1990） regard language transfer as using previous linguistics or prior skills to help comprehension or output.Newmark and Reibel （1968），and Krashen （1983） view native language transfer as a communication strategy，rather than a learning strategy.Krashen （1983） views language transfer as “padding”，the result of turning to prior knowledge when necessary new knowledge is out of presence in communication.In terms of Dechert （1984），language transfer is activating certain knowledge base，procedure，or operator in one part of language or language.To Beebe et al （1990），language transfer refers to the learners’ first language socio-cultural competence.
Odlin （1989，p.27） gives a “working definition” as he calls： “Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously （and perhaps imperfectly） acquired.This definition thus suggests that transfer can occur at any levels，strategic，linguistic，discoursal，and pragmatic.” This view of transfer，although it seems somewhat vague as Odlin himself admits，is the most widely accepted one.
Ellis （1994） defines language transfer as the influence the learner’s native language exerted over the acquisition of certain target language.Kasper （1995），who focuses on the pragmatic level，regards language transfer as the influence exerted by learners’ pragmatic knowledge of language and culture other than target language （TL） on their comprehension，production，and acquisition of TL pragmatic information.As for language transfer，Verschuren （1999） regards that it is code-switching or code-mixing.As far as Gui Shichun （1999） is concerned，language transfer is a kind of learning marks to perfection in the process of mastering a target language.
From the above definitions of language transfer，a conclusion can be drawn that the process of defining this notion is also the process of understanding it bit by bit.In this process，it is gradually revealed that language transfer is not simply a matter of interference or just falling back on the native language or any previously learned languages （Ellis，1994； Odlin，2001）.
Nowadays it is universally recognized that language transfer is a complicate mental process and it interacts with a good number of factors.Since the 1980s，many researchers have spared no effort to identify the conditions that promote or inhibit language transfers，and have eventually identified a lot of differing constraints on language transfer，including linguistic，psycholinguistic，and sociolinguistic factors. Ellis （1994，pp.315-335） has examined six general constraints on language transfer，which incorporate linguistic，psycholinguistic，and sociolinguistic factors.They are：
（1） language level；
（2） social factors；
（3） markedness；
（4） prototypicality；
（5） language distance and psychotypology；
（6） developmental factors.
According to Ellis （1994），the manifestations of transfer are： errors （negative transfer），facilitation （positive transfer），avoidance （or underproduction），and over-use.According to Odlin （2001），the outcomes of cross-linguistic influence are positive transfer，negative transfer and differing lengths of acquisition.Furthermore，negative transfer falls into underproduction，overproduction，production errors and misinterpretation.
References：
[1]Ringbom， H.（1987）.The role of the first language in foreign language learning.Clevedon， Avon： Multilingual Matters.
[2]Selinker， L.（1969）.Language transfer.General Linguistics， 9， 67-92.
[3]俞理明，（2004），语言迁移与二语习得——回顾、反思和研究.上海：上海外语教育出版社.
[4]O’Malley， J.
【Key words】language Transfer； definitions； consrtaints； manefestations
Generally speaking，the theory of language transfer has been assessed in three stages： approval and application； criticism and even complete ignorance； and rediscovery and reassessment.
In the 1950s，language transfer used to be regarded as the most essential factor to take into consideration in the research of second language acquisition and in approaches to foreign language teaching.It was believed that similarities between the mother tongue and target language facilitate the process of target language learning，while differences hinder it.It was also firmly believed that the learner’s difficulties and errors could be predicted through the scientific contrast of the native and target languages.
In the late 1960s and the whole 1970s language transfers met with critiques and even total ignorance on a few accounts.Firstly，the hypothesis mentioned above encountered serious challenges，because it had been proved questionable by the findings of some research.Secondly，some empirical researches showed that not all the errors committed by second language learners were due to the transfer of their native language and that not all the errors predicted through contrast of the native and target languages did appear in the output of the learners’ language.Therefore，some researchers even “denied the existence of language transfer in their enthusiasm for UG-oriented explanations”.（Ringbom，1987，p.1） Since the early 1980s，however，especially after the Interlanguage Hypothesis came into being，language transfer studies have regained attention.A more balanced perspective has emerged，in which the role of language transfer is acknowledged so that language transfer is believed to interact with many other factors in ways not yet fully understood.
Since the issue concerning language transfer was firstly raised by Selinker （1969），many linguists have attempted to define it from various perspectives，although it is a tough job to give a clear and convincing definition.According to Yu Liming （2004），the complication of the definition shows the immature development on the issue of language transfer.So，examining the definitions of language transfer is bound to offer us more perspectives and perceptions to get insight into the issue of language transfer. F?rch and Kasper （1987） define language transfer as the process in which second language learners’ active native language knowledge develops their interlanguage，and point out that it may either support or detract from learning.O’Malley and Chamot （1990） regard language transfer as using previous linguistics or prior skills to help comprehension or output.Newmark and Reibel （1968），and Krashen （1983） view native language transfer as a communication strategy，rather than a learning strategy.Krashen （1983） views language transfer as “padding”，the result of turning to prior knowledge when necessary new knowledge is out of presence in communication.In terms of Dechert （1984），language transfer is activating certain knowledge base，procedure，or operator in one part of language or language.To Beebe et al （1990），language transfer refers to the learners’ first language socio-cultural competence.
Odlin （1989，p.27） gives a “working definition” as he calls： “Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously （and perhaps imperfectly） acquired.This definition thus suggests that transfer can occur at any levels，strategic，linguistic，discoursal，and pragmatic.” This view of transfer，although it seems somewhat vague as Odlin himself admits，is the most widely accepted one.
Ellis （1994） defines language transfer as the influence the learner’s native language exerted over the acquisition of certain target language.Kasper （1995），who focuses on the pragmatic level，regards language transfer as the influence exerted by learners’ pragmatic knowledge of language and culture other than target language （TL） on their comprehension，production，and acquisition of TL pragmatic information.As for language transfer，Verschuren （1999） regards that it is code-switching or code-mixing.As far as Gui Shichun （1999） is concerned，language transfer is a kind of learning marks to perfection in the process of mastering a target language.
From the above definitions of language transfer，a conclusion can be drawn that the process of defining this notion is also the process of understanding it bit by bit.In this process，it is gradually revealed that language transfer is not simply a matter of interference or just falling back on the native language or any previously learned languages （Ellis，1994； Odlin，2001）.
Nowadays it is universally recognized that language transfer is a complicate mental process and it interacts with a good number of factors.Since the 1980s，many researchers have spared no effort to identify the conditions that promote or inhibit language transfers，and have eventually identified a lot of differing constraints on language transfer，including linguistic，psycholinguistic，and sociolinguistic factors. Ellis （1994，pp.315-335） has examined six general constraints on language transfer，which incorporate linguistic，psycholinguistic，and sociolinguistic factors.They are：
（1） language level；
（2） social factors；
（3） markedness；
（4） prototypicality；
（5） language distance and psychotypology；
（6） developmental factors.
According to Ellis （1994），the manifestations of transfer are： errors （negative transfer），facilitation （positive transfer），avoidance （or underproduction），and over-use.According to Odlin （2001），the outcomes of cross-linguistic influence are positive transfer，negative transfer and differing lengths of acquisition.Furthermore，negative transfer falls into underproduction，overproduction，production errors and misinterpretation.
References：
[1]Ringbom， H.（1987）.The role of the first language in foreign language learning.Clevedon， Avon： Multilingual Matters.
[2]Selinker， L.（1969）.Language transfer.General Linguistics， 9， 67-92.
[3]俞理明，（2004），语言迁移与二语习得——回顾、反思和研究.上海：上海外语教育出版社.
[4]O’Malley， J.