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Introduction
Listening has now been viewed as an extreme skill, and it plays a central role in language learning (Rost, 2001), rather than merely a source of input as people thought before. The skills underlying listening have become more clearly defined. Strategies contributing to effective listening are now better understood. However, teaching practice has not yet caught up with theory. The implement of strategy instruction still need more exploration. In this essay, we will discuss why strategies should be taught in listening classroom; and how strategy instruction should be carried out.
Many researchers (Sheerin, Vandergrift, Mendelsohn, etc.) agree that the past failure in teaching listening comprehension is mainly due to the 'osmosis' or 'sink or swim' (Mendelsohn, 1995) teaching method: only expose students to listening input, and fail to teach them how to listen, which is not teaching listening but testing it.
The notion of listening for meaning, rather than for language practice, became a standard in teaching by the mid-1980s (Anderson & Lynch, 1988). In contrast to the traditional method, a new method of teaching listening comprehension is raised, which encourages language teachers to integrate strategy instruction into normal listening comprehension lesson.
Concepts of (listening) strategy instruction
According to Oxford (2002), learning strategy is "specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations". And strategy instruction refers to the awareness-raising of an individual's understanding both of language and of him- or herself as a learner. It is concerned with training in what have come to be regarded as effective learning strategies, and training for independence and personal autonomy (Johnson & Johnson 1999). The concept of strategy instruction is obviously based on the assumption that learning strategies can be taught.
Although there are still many questions left unanswered, the validity of strategy instruction has been proved again and again by series of empirical studies carried out by many researchers (Wenden, Chamot, Nunan, D?rnyei, etc.). Among them, strategy instruction in listening area has been examined by O'Malley and Chamot (1990), Rost and Ross (1991), Kasper (1984), Vandergrift (mentioned in Vandergrift's 1999 article). Those specialists have argued that listening strategies can and should be taught. Although the research base is not large, preliminary evidence indicates that instruction in strategies can help students to capitalize on the language input they receive, and to improve their performance on listening tasks. The recommendation has been that we should teach them explicitly and singly . Individual strategies are often identified by reference to a classification system formulated by Oxford (1990).
Oxford (1990) has attempted to match different strategies up to different skill areas (see table 1). However, it seems many strategies are not specific ones. They can transfer from one skill area to another, especially metacognitive strategies, which can be applied to almost all skill areas.
Listening strategies are conscious plans to deal with incoming speech, particularly when the listener knows that he or she must compensate for incomplete input or partial understanding (Rost, 2001). Strategy instruction in listening area can be carried out in many forms. It can be integrated with listening classes or not. It can be taught explicitly or implicitly. The integrated model of training is more accepted by researchers. We will mainly discuss this training model in the essay.
By applying learning strategies in the second/foreign language listening comprehension, Mendelsohn (1995) raises the concept of a 'strategy-based' approach to listening course. He defines it as following: 'a strategy-based approach teaches learners how to listen by instructing them in the use of strategies', which is a methodology rooted in strategy-instruction. It is an approach that sees the objective of the SL/FL course as being to teach students how to listen.
Vandergrift (1999) also provide a pre-listening, listening, and post-listening model of listening strategies instruction. The importance of metacognitive strategies was emphasized in this model. Planning, monitoring, and evaluation strategies were matched up to the three phases of pre-listening, listening and post-listening.
The 'why' questions about strategy instruction
a. Some assumptions about listening comprehension
The strategy-based teaching method should be based on some basic assumptions about the listening process:
Firstly, listening is an active process (Anderson, Mendelshon, etc.). Good listeners are active listeners who interpret information and not merely functioning like sponges mopping up text.
Secondly, listening needs to begin as a conscious process, and, consequently we need to bring the process of listening to a conscious level.
Thirdly, listening is a process of interpreting, and not merely one of decoding (Mendelsohn, 1995).
b. Why should we teach strategies in listening classes?
There were mainly two traditional ways to teach listening comprehension (Mendelsohn, 1995). One way is called 'sink or swim' method-a method in which the teacher gives students a passage to listen to, never teaches them how to approach the task, and after listening, asks them questions on it-sink or swim! It simply adds yet another text to the learners' experience; it does little or nothing to improve the effectiveness of their listening or to address their shortcomings as listeners (Field, 1999). Hence the likelihood that, confronted with a similar text next time, learners will use the same unsuccessful techniques. They will not have improved as listeners. This is also called testing method by Sheerin (1987).
Another Method is having students follow along on a transcript while listening-this asks students to do something which runs counter to the very abilities they need for listening in the real world.
Then, why should strategy-based approach, or diagnostic approach (Field, 1999), be used in listening teaching? Why does this method outdo those conventional methods? What is the value of teaching students to become strategically smart?
According to Field (1999), teachers who use the conventional methods focus more on the product of listening-correct answers of the task. When a learner supplies a correct answer, there is no indication as to how that answer has been arrived at: has meaning been constructed by correctly identifying all the words in a particular piece of text, or by identifying one word and making an inspired guess? A strategy-based approach help teachers focus on the process of listening-how has the students got the answer? Wrong answers can be seen to be more significant than correct ones. By analyzing where understanding broke down and teach them appropriate strategies to enhance their understanding, teachers can really help learners to improve their listening skills.
According to Mendelsohn (1995), there are some major benefits of a strategy-based approach. First, a strategy-based approach makes learning how to listen more effective, which has been proved by prior empirical studies.
Second, instruction in how to listen improves listening comprehension. Research with first language speakers has shown this, and the same has been found to be true with second/foreign language speakers.
The third benefit of it is that not only do learners begin to apply the appropriate strategies, but they begin to think about listening consciously, and thus develop an awareness of how language is learned and functions.
Fourth, it has been shown empirically that mentally active learners are better learners (Rubin 1975), and a strategy-based approach calls for greater mental activity. Learners become active learners in control of learning, and the strategy instruction also provides them with the tools to continue to grapple with the language being learned long after their formal language classes are over.
A fifth benefit is that strategies help language learners to handle the enormous quantity of information 'coming at' them and prevent them from going into 'information overload'.
The most important one is that it teaches learners how to learn, which allows them to work more independently. This supports the maxim of "learner autonomy" and "lifelong learning concept".
If we compare Mendelsohn's comment with Ellis and Sinclair's (1989:2), which claims the benefits of learner training in general SL/FL learning, we can find they are quite consistent, which indicates those general strategies can transfer to specific areas. We can find the two outstanding values are: a. help learners to be good language learners; b. lead to "learner autonomy", which is the final goal of strategy instruction.
The 'how' questions about strategy-based approach
a. different models of listening strategy instruction
Pedagogically speaking, there are many jobs done for learner training programs and materials over the past 20 years. For example, Ellis and Sinclair (1989) attempt to provide a framework for learners to exploit in making their classroom learning more effective, and in build confidence and competence for more independent learning (Hedge, 1993). Besides, Vandergrift (1999) also provide an integrated framework to combine listening practice with strategy training.
Before any strategy instruction, it is very important to get to know what students have already known about strategies and their attitude towards learner training. Teachers must know this before they do any needs analysis and training plan. Motivation is a very important factor in training process. It directly affects the effectiveness of strategy instruction.
Dickinson (1987) said preparation of learner training covers two phases: psychological preparation and methodological preparation. For psychological part, students' consciousness to its value has to be raised, since we hope they will develop an ownership of the strategies, retain them, and apply them in the future. Mendelsohn (1995) offers a method to raise students' motivation. He chooses a listening material in a language which students do not know, and tells them to listen to each snippet, and to write down what it is that they are listening to, and what they based their decision on. Then, discus their effort, and students are amazed at how much they were able to determine, merely from such things as tone of voice, speed of delivery, etc. This game can give them confidence to try some of the strategies that teachers subsequently propose, and show them the immediate payoff.
For methodological preparation, teachers should let students 'informed' rather than 'blind' (Wenden, 1987). The learners should be told explicitly the aims so that they realize why a particular strategy can be helpful. If they are left blind, they maybe demotivated to and misunderstand what they are doing. For example, a teacher who was training her class in strategies for guessing unknown words by inserting some made-up words in a text, received the following comment from a learner: 'what is the point of learning imaginary words when there are so many real words we don't know in English?' This is a typical example of a learner misunderstanding the aims of an activity.
Different researchers have suggested different approaches to listening strategies instruction. Even for those integrated models of instruction, we can have different emphasis.
One model is strategy-based approach raised by Mendelsohn (1995). This model focuses on a systematic training of a series of selected listening strategies. In contrast to the traditional table of content, which listed out according to the classification of listening materials, the textbook of this course is organized by classification of strategies. For example, the following strategy-based units are virtually essential in some form in most listening courses (Mendelsohn, 1995: 138):
However, the above model require teacher have the power to choose or edit the textbook. For most teaching settings, in which the textbooks are prearranged by institutes, the second model of training may be more practical. This model based on Vandergrift's pedagogic plan for encouraging the use of metacognitive strategies. It can be carried out based on an existing listening textbook. First, find out students' needs and determine what strategies will be taught. Then, combine the strategy instruction with existing listening activities according to the types of activities and the genre of listening materials.
Metacognitive strategies can be emphasized in every activity, by asking students to do planning, monitoring and evaluation before, during and after listening.
Pre-listening activities can take various forms, but the important thing is to activate the students' existing knowledge of the topic in order for them to link this to what they comprehend and to use this as a basis of their hypothesis-formation, prediction, and inferencing. Besides, students must decide what they are going to be listening for-details, the central idea, one particular fact, which can help them develop some focuses when listening and concentrate on what they need to find out by listening.
Listening activities can be divided into two parts: guided activities and practice activities. Guided activities are specially designed to give instructions in using the different strategies they have been taught. Practice activities allow students to practice what they have learnt in the real listening materials. This is essential, because only at this stage students will be applying the different strategies that they have learnt in the guided activities to real listening, i.e., not in activities and passages aimed at highlighting the value of one particular strategy (Mendelsohn, 1995). During this phase, students are expected to monitor their comprehension and make decisions about strategy use. They need to evaluate continually what they are comprehending for (i) consistency with their predictions, and (ii) internal consistency, i.e. the ongoing interpretation of the oral text or interaction (Vandergrift, 1999).
Post-listening activities are designed for students to evaluate the results of decisions made during a listening task. Teachers can encourage self-evaluation and reflection by asking students to assess the effectiveness of strategies used. Group discussion can also be used to stimulate reflection and worthwhile evaluation. Students share individual routes leading to success, such as how someone guessed (inference) the meaning of a certain word, or how someone modified a particular strategy.
Through those activities above, students are expected to form a habit of reflective learning. They can make their own decisions which strategies should be used to solve a specific problem. When encountering a new problem, they can expand their prior used strategies to solve it, or find new strategies to deal with it. They can consciously transfer their strategies used in L1 over to L2 listening. Finally, learners are more independent in their listening comprehension. All those above can be viewed as outcomes of listening strategy instruction.
b. wrong assumptions in strategy training.
Some people may think that strategy training is to teach strategies to students who know nothing about them. In fact, each learner has his or her own strategies used to solve problems in language learning. Some of those personal strategies are effective, some not. Those strategies can be transferred from their first language strategies, or be created during problem-solving processes. Teachers should find out what strategies learners have already used and how they use them. Just picking up some strategies and teach them to students should be avoided.
Another dangerous trend is to apply one instruction model to any teaching settings. Students may have different needs, attitudes, past learning experience, cultural background, and language aptitude. Besides, students' individual difference counts! All those factors affect the results of strategy training. It is very important to handle strategy training with flexibility (Lessard-Clouston, 1997).
Conclusion
Effective teaching of listening involves many aspects, For example, the careful selection of input sources, creative design of tasks, integration of listening with other learning purposes (Rost, 2001). Among them, assistance to help learners enact effective listening strategies is essential one, since it allow students participation and support the idea of 'learner empowerment'; and confirm the active nature of listening.
However, in many language curriculums, listening is still often considered a mysterious 'black box', for which the best approach seems to be simply 'more practice'. Specific skill instruction, together with strategy development, still needs greater attention in order to demystify the listening process.
References:
[1]Anderson,A & Lynch,T 1988 Listening OUP,Chamot, A. 1995 'Learning strategies and listening comprehension' in Mendelsohn, D. & Rubin, J. (eds.) A Guide for the Teaching of Second Language Listening Dominie Press.
[2]Dickinson,L.1987 Self-instruction in Language Learning CUP
Ellis,G.& Sinclair,B.1993 Learning to learn English CUP Field, J. 1999.
Listening has now been viewed as an extreme skill, and it plays a central role in language learning (Rost, 2001), rather than merely a source of input as people thought before. The skills underlying listening have become more clearly defined. Strategies contributing to effective listening are now better understood. However, teaching practice has not yet caught up with theory. The implement of strategy instruction still need more exploration. In this essay, we will discuss why strategies should be taught in listening classroom; and how strategy instruction should be carried out.
Many researchers (Sheerin, Vandergrift, Mendelsohn, etc.) agree that the past failure in teaching listening comprehension is mainly due to the 'osmosis' or 'sink or swim' (Mendelsohn, 1995) teaching method: only expose students to listening input, and fail to teach them how to listen, which is not teaching listening but testing it.
The notion of listening for meaning, rather than for language practice, became a standard in teaching by the mid-1980s (Anderson & Lynch, 1988). In contrast to the traditional method, a new method of teaching listening comprehension is raised, which encourages language teachers to integrate strategy instruction into normal listening comprehension lesson.
Concepts of (listening) strategy instruction
According to Oxford (2002), learning strategy is "specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations". And strategy instruction refers to the awareness-raising of an individual's understanding both of language and of him- or herself as a learner. It is concerned with training in what have come to be regarded as effective learning strategies, and training for independence and personal autonomy (Johnson & Johnson 1999). The concept of strategy instruction is obviously based on the assumption that learning strategies can be taught.
Although there are still many questions left unanswered, the validity of strategy instruction has been proved again and again by series of empirical studies carried out by many researchers (Wenden, Chamot, Nunan, D?rnyei, etc.). Among them, strategy instruction in listening area has been examined by O'Malley and Chamot (1990), Rost and Ross (1991), Kasper (1984), Vandergrift (mentioned in Vandergrift's 1999 article). Those specialists have argued that listening strategies can and should be taught. Although the research base is not large, preliminary evidence indicates that instruction in strategies can help students to capitalize on the language input they receive, and to improve their performance on listening tasks. The recommendation has been that we should teach them explicitly and singly . Individual strategies are often identified by reference to a classification system formulated by Oxford (1990).
Oxford (1990) has attempted to match different strategies up to different skill areas (see table 1). However, it seems many strategies are not specific ones. They can transfer from one skill area to another, especially metacognitive strategies, which can be applied to almost all skill areas.
Listening strategies are conscious plans to deal with incoming speech, particularly when the listener knows that he or she must compensate for incomplete input or partial understanding (Rost, 2001). Strategy instruction in listening area can be carried out in many forms. It can be integrated with listening classes or not. It can be taught explicitly or implicitly. The integrated model of training is more accepted by researchers. We will mainly discuss this training model in the essay.
By applying learning strategies in the second/foreign language listening comprehension, Mendelsohn (1995) raises the concept of a 'strategy-based' approach to listening course. He defines it as following: 'a strategy-based approach teaches learners how to listen by instructing them in the use of strategies', which is a methodology rooted in strategy-instruction. It is an approach that sees the objective of the SL/FL course as being to teach students how to listen.
Vandergrift (1999) also provide a pre-listening, listening, and post-listening model of listening strategies instruction. The importance of metacognitive strategies was emphasized in this model. Planning, monitoring, and evaluation strategies were matched up to the three phases of pre-listening, listening and post-listening.
The 'why' questions about strategy instruction
a. Some assumptions about listening comprehension
The strategy-based teaching method should be based on some basic assumptions about the listening process:
Firstly, listening is an active process (Anderson, Mendelshon, etc.). Good listeners are active listeners who interpret information and not merely functioning like sponges mopping up text.
Secondly, listening needs to begin as a conscious process, and, consequently we need to bring the process of listening to a conscious level.
Thirdly, listening is a process of interpreting, and not merely one of decoding (Mendelsohn, 1995).
b. Why should we teach strategies in listening classes?
There were mainly two traditional ways to teach listening comprehension (Mendelsohn, 1995). One way is called 'sink or swim' method-a method in which the teacher gives students a passage to listen to, never teaches them how to approach the task, and after listening, asks them questions on it-sink or swim! It simply adds yet another text to the learners' experience; it does little or nothing to improve the effectiveness of their listening or to address their shortcomings as listeners (Field, 1999). Hence the likelihood that, confronted with a similar text next time, learners will use the same unsuccessful techniques. They will not have improved as listeners. This is also called testing method by Sheerin (1987).
Another Method is having students follow along on a transcript while listening-this asks students to do something which runs counter to the very abilities they need for listening in the real world.
Then, why should strategy-based approach, or diagnostic approach (Field, 1999), be used in listening teaching? Why does this method outdo those conventional methods? What is the value of teaching students to become strategically smart?
According to Field (1999), teachers who use the conventional methods focus more on the product of listening-correct answers of the task. When a learner supplies a correct answer, there is no indication as to how that answer has been arrived at: has meaning been constructed by correctly identifying all the words in a particular piece of text, or by identifying one word and making an inspired guess? A strategy-based approach help teachers focus on the process of listening-how has the students got the answer? Wrong answers can be seen to be more significant than correct ones. By analyzing where understanding broke down and teach them appropriate strategies to enhance their understanding, teachers can really help learners to improve their listening skills.
According to Mendelsohn (1995), there are some major benefits of a strategy-based approach. First, a strategy-based approach makes learning how to listen more effective, which has been proved by prior empirical studies.
Second, instruction in how to listen improves listening comprehension. Research with first language speakers has shown this, and the same has been found to be true with second/foreign language speakers.
The third benefit of it is that not only do learners begin to apply the appropriate strategies, but they begin to think about listening consciously, and thus develop an awareness of how language is learned and functions.
Fourth, it has been shown empirically that mentally active learners are better learners (Rubin 1975), and a strategy-based approach calls for greater mental activity. Learners become active learners in control of learning, and the strategy instruction also provides them with the tools to continue to grapple with the language being learned long after their formal language classes are over.
A fifth benefit is that strategies help language learners to handle the enormous quantity of information 'coming at' them and prevent them from going into 'information overload'.
The most important one is that it teaches learners how to learn, which allows them to work more independently. This supports the maxim of "learner autonomy" and "lifelong learning concept".
If we compare Mendelsohn's comment with Ellis and Sinclair's (1989:2), which claims the benefits of learner training in general SL/FL learning, we can find they are quite consistent, which indicates those general strategies can transfer to specific areas. We can find the two outstanding values are: a. help learners to be good language learners; b. lead to "learner autonomy", which is the final goal of strategy instruction.
The 'how' questions about strategy-based approach
a. different models of listening strategy instruction
Pedagogically speaking, there are many jobs done for learner training programs and materials over the past 20 years. For example, Ellis and Sinclair (1989) attempt to provide a framework for learners to exploit in making their classroom learning more effective, and in build confidence and competence for more independent learning (Hedge, 1993). Besides, Vandergrift (1999) also provide an integrated framework to combine listening practice with strategy training.
Before any strategy instruction, it is very important to get to know what students have already known about strategies and their attitude towards learner training. Teachers must know this before they do any needs analysis and training plan. Motivation is a very important factor in training process. It directly affects the effectiveness of strategy instruction.
Dickinson (1987) said preparation of learner training covers two phases: psychological preparation and methodological preparation. For psychological part, students' consciousness to its value has to be raised, since we hope they will develop an ownership of the strategies, retain them, and apply them in the future. Mendelsohn (1995) offers a method to raise students' motivation. He chooses a listening material in a language which students do not know, and tells them to listen to each snippet, and to write down what it is that they are listening to, and what they based their decision on. Then, discus their effort, and students are amazed at how much they were able to determine, merely from such things as tone of voice, speed of delivery, etc. This game can give them confidence to try some of the strategies that teachers subsequently propose, and show them the immediate payoff.
For methodological preparation, teachers should let students 'informed' rather than 'blind' (Wenden, 1987). The learners should be told explicitly the aims so that they realize why a particular strategy can be helpful. If they are left blind, they maybe demotivated to and misunderstand what they are doing. For example, a teacher who was training her class in strategies for guessing unknown words by inserting some made-up words in a text, received the following comment from a learner: 'what is the point of learning imaginary words when there are so many real words we don't know in English?' This is a typical example of a learner misunderstanding the aims of an activity.
Different researchers have suggested different approaches to listening strategies instruction. Even for those integrated models of instruction, we can have different emphasis.
One model is strategy-based approach raised by Mendelsohn (1995). This model focuses on a systematic training of a series of selected listening strategies. In contrast to the traditional table of content, which listed out according to the classification of listening materials, the textbook of this course is organized by classification of strategies. For example, the following strategy-based units are virtually essential in some form in most listening courses (Mendelsohn, 1995: 138):
However, the above model require teacher have the power to choose or edit the textbook. For most teaching settings, in which the textbooks are prearranged by institutes, the second model of training may be more practical. This model based on Vandergrift's pedagogic plan for encouraging the use of metacognitive strategies. It can be carried out based on an existing listening textbook. First, find out students' needs and determine what strategies will be taught. Then, combine the strategy instruction with existing listening activities according to the types of activities and the genre of listening materials.
Metacognitive strategies can be emphasized in every activity, by asking students to do planning, monitoring and evaluation before, during and after listening.
Pre-listening activities can take various forms, but the important thing is to activate the students' existing knowledge of the topic in order for them to link this to what they comprehend and to use this as a basis of their hypothesis-formation, prediction, and inferencing. Besides, students must decide what they are going to be listening for-details, the central idea, one particular fact, which can help them develop some focuses when listening and concentrate on what they need to find out by listening.
Listening activities can be divided into two parts: guided activities and practice activities. Guided activities are specially designed to give instructions in using the different strategies they have been taught. Practice activities allow students to practice what they have learnt in the real listening materials. This is essential, because only at this stage students will be applying the different strategies that they have learnt in the guided activities to real listening, i.e., not in activities and passages aimed at highlighting the value of one particular strategy (Mendelsohn, 1995). During this phase, students are expected to monitor their comprehension and make decisions about strategy use. They need to evaluate continually what they are comprehending for (i) consistency with their predictions, and (ii) internal consistency, i.e. the ongoing interpretation of the oral text or interaction (Vandergrift, 1999).
Post-listening activities are designed for students to evaluate the results of decisions made during a listening task. Teachers can encourage self-evaluation and reflection by asking students to assess the effectiveness of strategies used. Group discussion can also be used to stimulate reflection and worthwhile evaluation. Students share individual routes leading to success, such as how someone guessed (inference) the meaning of a certain word, or how someone modified a particular strategy.
Through those activities above, students are expected to form a habit of reflective learning. They can make their own decisions which strategies should be used to solve a specific problem. When encountering a new problem, they can expand their prior used strategies to solve it, or find new strategies to deal with it. They can consciously transfer their strategies used in L1 over to L2 listening. Finally, learners are more independent in their listening comprehension. All those above can be viewed as outcomes of listening strategy instruction.
b. wrong assumptions in strategy training.
Some people may think that strategy training is to teach strategies to students who know nothing about them. In fact, each learner has his or her own strategies used to solve problems in language learning. Some of those personal strategies are effective, some not. Those strategies can be transferred from their first language strategies, or be created during problem-solving processes. Teachers should find out what strategies learners have already used and how they use them. Just picking up some strategies and teach them to students should be avoided.
Another dangerous trend is to apply one instruction model to any teaching settings. Students may have different needs, attitudes, past learning experience, cultural background, and language aptitude. Besides, students' individual difference counts! All those factors affect the results of strategy training. It is very important to handle strategy training with flexibility (Lessard-Clouston, 1997).
Conclusion
Effective teaching of listening involves many aspects, For example, the careful selection of input sources, creative design of tasks, integration of listening with other learning purposes (Rost, 2001). Among them, assistance to help learners enact effective listening strategies is essential one, since it allow students participation and support the idea of 'learner empowerment'; and confirm the active nature of listening.
However, in many language curriculums, listening is still often considered a mysterious 'black box', for which the best approach seems to be simply 'more practice'. Specific skill instruction, together with strategy development, still needs greater attention in order to demystify the listening process.
References:
[1]Anderson,A & Lynch,T 1988 Listening OUP,Chamot, A. 1995 'Learning strategies and listening comprehension' in Mendelsohn, D. & Rubin, J. (eds.) A Guide for the Teaching of Second Language Listening Dominie Press.
[2]Dickinson,L.1987 Self-instruction in Language Learning CUP
Ellis,G.& Sinclair,B.1993 Learning to learn English CUP Field, J. 1999.