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摘要:本文基于评价的相关理论探讨评价的社会建构功能。文章以布什的演讲为例,分析政治演说中的评价在建构道德形象、权力身份,建构意识形态与听众/读者的立场,并协调与听众/读者距离的功能,指出评价最终为建构某一社会意识形态框架下的群体服务。
关键词:布什演说;评价;社会建构
中图分类号:D08文献标志码:A 文章编号:1002-2589(2010)27-0021-04
引言
语言是社会活动呈现的基础,也是人类一特定文化、社会群体和机构建立关系的基础(Gee, 2003:1)。Fowler指出,从某种意义看,上所有类型的语篇, 无论是物理学教科书、自己动手手册、小说、儿童书、人物传记、史册、言语和会话以及当前我们读的这本书等都是对某一世界的话语建构 (Fowler, 1991:208)。关于话语建构功能的论说指出了语境、行为者以及活动互相影响,它们处在一个互相重构的不断变化的关系中(Wodak, 2006: 599)。
政治演说典型的政治语篇,是实现社会控制的机制,是维持社会不平等和维护各种政治经济利益的话语实践。作为话语实践,它受某一社会因素影响,同时也在建构一种现实,其重要性在于建构某一意识形态框架下的社会群体,以达到指导公众舆论, 影响公众行为的目的。在这一话语过程中, 评价 (evaluation) 起了非常重要的作用。评价体现说话人的价值体系,帮助协商各种关系,并组织语篇(Thomson & Hunston, 2000:6)。
语篇中的评价往往表现为凸显价值和信仰传递的语篇策略(Fowler, 1991:208-209)。评价体现为意义贯穿语篇,以宏观与微观形式存在于语篇中 (Hunston & Thompson, 2000: 10)。宏观方面,评价往往体现为以评价对象为基础的谋篇布局,由语篇的语类结构的态度视角配合态度词汇实现。微观方面,评价体现为一系列的词汇语法项目,关于这点,在系统功能语言学人际功能上发展起来的评价理论为此提供了考察依据。评价理论有三个子系统: 态度、级差和介入。态度(attitude)语言资源解释作者对行为、文本及现象所表达的情感; 级差(gradation)反应这种编码的强度;介入(engagement) 分为单声与多声,体现为从对话性收缩到对话性扩展的程度,用来表现作者对命题或命题背后所承载的声音的态度,实际上是反映了作者对理想听众/读者的一种期待, 体现为对听众/读者立场的建构。评价理论详见Martin(2000), 王振华(2001),Martin &White (2005)等。
基于以上关于评价的相关理论,本文拟以布什2005年6月28日为对伊战争辩解的国民演说为实例,探讨政治语篇通过评价实现的社会建构功能。
政治演说中评价的社会建构功能
就政治演说而言,评价是为施政目的服务的。它体现意识形态,同时必须协调各种关系,体现多重目的,最终为建构某一社会意识形态框架下的群体服务。文章拟依前面所述,从语篇的宏观与微观层面可考察演说中的评价如何实现其社会建构功能。
1.评价建构道德形象
为更好地服务于施政目的,政治演说家首先要为自己或所代表的权力集团建构道德形象。以所选演说为例,从语类结构(Martin & Rose, 2003)的态度视角来看, 语篇涵盖的三个评价内容是:
1)对恐怖分子的悲愤及恐怖分子与伊拉克关系的阐释,目的是批判萨达姆统治下伊拉克的恐怖罪恶行径,其中充斥显性否定判定的社会约束词汇,如murder, tyranny, oppression, continue to kill, murderous ideology, extremism, behead civilian hostages, savage acts of violence等等。
2)伊拉克战事取得的良好进程,目的是强调对伊战争是充分受到国际组织帮助的,是正义的。显性肯定判定的词汇包括 significant progress, …restored sovereignty…,…elections that were free and fair, …improving roads and schools….等等。
3)对伊继续战争勾画:我们的好意图,我们的最新进展及其重要性,借此将美国行为美化为人道主义援助, 如…hunting down the terrorists…,…helping Iraqis build a free nation…,…advancing freedom in the Middle East…,…removing a source of violence and instability, and laying the foundation of peace….
通过对态度内容的安排,配合微观层面评价词汇的使用,布什将自身所代表的立场 —对伊战争建构为道德行为,建构了布什本人及其代表的政治集团的道德形象。
2.评价建构权力身份
政治演说中比较突出的评价特征之一是单声的使用比例较大。单声(disengagement)即是断言。从评价对话性角度看,单声是对话性收缩的极端。它是说话人构建权力身份和道德权威的手段,是对其他潜在观点的压制和忽略(White, 2003)。布什文本中单声句的比例很大。文本中句子(clause-complexes)总数为197(简单句121,复合句76),复合小句总数为162。在143个单声句中,100句是单句。于是单声句在单句中的比例为100÷121= 82%,而单声句在复合句小句总数中的比例为 (143-100) ÷162 = 26%。尽管布什的演说发生在半数民众已对伊拉克战争表示强烈反对的时段,文本仍强烈压制其他声音,凸显权威声音,建构权力身份,以助施加意识形态影响。
3.评价建构意识形态
政治演说中通常有态度鲜明的评价词汇,体现评价意义,赞美一致立场,贬抑对立立场。实现这些评价意义的词汇弥散在语篇的各个部分,通过其反复传递的信息强烈地冲击听众/读者,达到意识形态建构的目的。以所选语篇为例,布什文本中有明显的态度意义,可概括为:对萨达姆与恐怖分子的[+强硬],对美国在伊任务[+荣誉],自身身份的构建[+独一无二],态度信息主旨是对伊战争是必须的、光荣的。当传递这些信息的态度词反复出现在文中,特别是断言句中时,听众/读者无法摆脱被左右的状态。例如,布什在建构恐怖分子与萨达姆统治下的伊拉克时,反复使用了不少否定态度词,例如:
(9) The terrorists who attacked us—and the terrorists we face—murder in the name of a totalitarian ideology that hates freedom, rejects tolerance, and despises all dissent.
(31) Some of the violence you see in Iraq is being carried out by ruthless killers who are converging on Iraq to fight the advance of peace and freedom.
文本中否定态度词支配力量很强,听众读者无法挑战(Hoey,2000)。因此文本建构了予话人持有的意识形态意义——萨达姆统治下的伊拉克是极权主义和恐怖主义的化身。该意识形态通过态度词汇的反复使用得以重申。同样,在谈及美国在伊任务时,布什使用了以下句子建构对伊战争的“荣誉”:
(58)I said that America's mission in Iraq is to defeat an enemy and give strength to a friend—a free, representative government that is an ally in the war on terror, and a beacon of hope in a part of the world that is desperate for reform.
(66)We're improving roads and schools and health clinics. (67)We're working to improve basic services like sanitation, electricity, and water. (69) And together with our allies, we'll help the new Iraqi government deliver a better life for its citizens.
4.评价建构听众/读者的立场
为达到更好地控制和影响,政治演说在传递态度信息建构意识形态同时,也在建构听众/读者立场。听众/读者立场建构除使用单声压制其他立场外,主要是通过评价介入中的对话性收缩资源实现。对话性收缩资源归并听众读者,有利于建构演说人理想中的听众/读者立场。以所选文本为例。文本声音使用了32个高度收缩的情态词“will”,用于“我们取得的进步与我们的策略”语义段,出现在 “we will...”, “The Iraqis will...”的结构里构建一致。所有这些 “will”都是布什对将来的预测,多数带有责任型情态意义(= oughtto)。例如:
84)To complete the mission, we will continue to hunt down the terrorists and insurgents.
143)After a constitution is written, the Iraqi people will have a chance to vote on it.
通过使用“will”布什将自己的立场体现为民众立场,留给了听众/读者很小的思考余地,“will”成为建构一致立场的有效手段。此外,文本中还有we see…, we know…等表达,将演说者所假设或认同的情境变为众所周知的事实,以构建一致。如:
(44)We see the nature of the enemy in terrorists who exploded car bombs along a busy shopping street in Baghdad, including one outside a mosque.
(174)We know that if evil is not confronted, it gains in strength and audacity, and returns to strike us again.
5.评价建构予话人与听众的密切关系
为达到更好的控制与影响,演说者除隐性建构听众/读者立场外,也会运用参与策略与读者建立一种密切关系。所选文本中,从宏观语篇角度看,这种参与策略体现在布什对部分民众参与的伊拉克战争中“我们的好意图”和“我们的最新进展及其重要性”的反复描述,例如:
(20)Our mission in Iraq is clear. We're hunting down the terrorists. (21) We're helping Iraqis build a free nation that is an ally in the war on terror.(22) We're advancing freedom in the broader Middle East.(23)We are removing a source of violence and instability, and laying the foundation of peace for our children and our grandchildren.
(46)In the past year, we have made significant progress. One year ago today, we restored sovereignty to the Iraqi people. In January 2005, more than 8 million Iraqi men and women voted in elections that were free and fair, and took time on— and took place on time. We continued our efforts to help them rebuild their country. Rebuilding a country after three decades of tyranny is hard, and rebuilding while at war is even harder. Our progress has been uneven, but progress is being made.
此种细节描写凸显行动的一致性,增强了参与感,是演说人与听众读者建立密切关系的手段之一。
同时,从以上两例可看出,文本声音对密切关系在微观层面的建构主要体现为文本声音对人称指示词的操纵。实际上文本声音用了73例”we”和48例”our”, 所指都是国民,此外还有“The American people” 的使用。这些高度收缩的指示资源主要分布于布什所建构的“对伊战争正义性,美国使命及美国人在伊拉克取得的进展”等语义段中,除能煽动民族情绪外,主要是增强听众的参与感,拉近与听众的距离,与听众建立密切关系,以助取得更多的支持。更多的例子如下:
(23) We're advancing freedom in the broader Middle East.
(155)Our strategy to defend ourselves and spread freedom is working.
(169)The American people do not falter under threat, and we will not allow our future to be determined by car bombers and assassins.
(195)I told the American people that the road ahead would be difficult, and that we would prevail. Well, it has been difficult -- and we are prevailing.
结语
本文通过布什的演说揭示政治演说文体中评价的社会建构功能。评价是演说文体中的一个重要意义成分, 它不但表达了演说者的态度和观点, 同时也在建构某一意识形态,构成了作者操控受众的重要语言手段。政治演说中的评价主要从以下个方面建构其社会作用:建构道德形象、权威声音和意识形态;建构听众/读者的立场以及予话人与听众的密切关系。总而言之,政治语篇中评价通过建构意识形态影响,协调与听众/读者的距离,为最终建构某一社会意识形态的群体服务。
参考文献:
[1]Fowler, R. Language in the News[M]. London: Routledge. 1991: 208-209.
[2]Gee, J. P. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis Theory and Method (4th edition, revised.)[M] London: Routledge. 2003: 1.
[3]Hoey. Persuasive Rhetoric in Linguistics: a Stylistic Study of Some Features of the Language of Noam Chomskey. In Hunston, S. & G.Thompson.(ed.)Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2000: 28-37
[4]Hunston,S.&G.Thompson. Evaluation: An introduction [A]. In Hunston,S.& G.Thompson(eds.). Evaluation in Text [C].Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000: 6-10.
[5]Martin,J.R.Beyond exchange: Appraisal system in English [A]. In S.Hunston & G.Thompson(eds.). Evaluation in Text: Authorial Stance and the Construction of Discourse [C].Oxford: OUP, 2000: 142-175.
[6]Martin, J. R. & Rose, D. Working with Discourse: Meaning Beyond the Clause [M]. London: New York: Continuum. 2003: 48
[7]Martin, J. R. & P.R.R.White. The Evaluation of Language [M].Palgrave Macmillan. 2005: 102, 167
[8]Miller. Engagement strategies of aligment and alination in currenct US international discourse[A]. In Maurizio Gotti & Christopher Candlin (ed.), Intercultural Discourse in Domain-specific English, Textus XVIII, 2004 n.1.
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[10]Wodak, R.. Review focus: Boundaries in discourse analysis [J]. Language in Society, 2006,(35): 595-611.
[11]王振华.评价系统及其运作——系统功能语言学的新进展 [J].外国语, 2001,(6):13-20.
[12]李发根. 评价的识别、功能和参数[J].外语教学与研究, 2006, (1):1-3.
Analysis of the social construction function of the evaluation
——Taking speeches by Bush as an example
WU Li-dan
(Foreign language college,Guangzhou university,Guangzhou 510421,China)
Abstract: Based on the relevant theories of the function of Evaluation in text, especially the Appraisal theory, this paper explores the social construing effect of the evaluative elements in the political text, and illustrate it with a political speech by president Bush. Through the case analysis, this paper points out that evaluative elements in the political text help to construe moral and autoritative image, a certain ideological state, and at the same time model the relationship between The speaker and the listeners, and ultimately serve the purpose of consturing a certain political or ideological community.
Key words: speeches by Bush; evaluation ;social construction
关键词:布什演说;评价;社会建构
中图分类号:D08文献标志码:A 文章编号:1002-2589(2010)27-0021-04
引言
语言是社会活动呈现的基础,也是人类一特定文化、社会群体和机构建立关系的基础(Gee, 2003:1)。Fowler指出,从某种意义看,上所有类型的语篇, 无论是物理学教科书、自己动手手册、小说、儿童书、人物传记、史册、言语和会话以及当前我们读的这本书等都是对某一世界的话语建构 (Fowler, 1991:208)。关于话语建构功能的论说指出了语境、行为者以及活动互相影响,它们处在一个互相重构的不断变化的关系中(Wodak, 2006: 599)。
政治演说典型的政治语篇,是实现社会控制的机制,是维持社会不平等和维护各种政治经济利益的话语实践。作为话语实践,它受某一社会因素影响,同时也在建构一种现实,其重要性在于建构某一意识形态框架下的社会群体,以达到指导公众舆论, 影响公众行为的目的。在这一话语过程中, 评价 (evaluation) 起了非常重要的作用。评价体现说话人的价值体系,帮助协商各种关系,并组织语篇(Thomson & Hunston, 2000:6)。
语篇中的评价往往表现为凸显价值和信仰传递的语篇策略(Fowler, 1991:208-209)。评价体现为意义贯穿语篇,以宏观与微观形式存在于语篇中 (Hunston & Thompson, 2000: 10)。宏观方面,评价往往体现为以评价对象为基础的谋篇布局,由语篇的语类结构的态度视角配合态度词汇实现。微观方面,评价体现为一系列的词汇语法项目,关于这点,在系统功能语言学人际功能上发展起来的评价理论为此提供了考察依据。评价理论有三个子系统: 态度、级差和介入。态度(attitude)语言资源解释作者对行为、文本及现象所表达的情感; 级差(gradation)反应这种编码的强度;介入(engagement) 分为单声与多声,体现为从对话性收缩到对话性扩展的程度,用来表现作者对命题或命题背后所承载的声音的态度,实际上是反映了作者对理想听众/读者的一种期待, 体现为对听众/读者立场的建构。评价理论详见Martin(2000), 王振华(2001),Martin &White (2005)等。
基于以上关于评价的相关理论,本文拟以布什2005年6月28日为对伊战争辩解的国民演说为实例,探讨政治语篇通过评价实现的社会建构功能。
政治演说中评价的社会建构功能
就政治演说而言,评价是为施政目的服务的。它体现意识形态,同时必须协调各种关系,体现多重目的,最终为建构某一社会意识形态框架下的群体服务。文章拟依前面所述,从语篇的宏观与微观层面可考察演说中的评价如何实现其社会建构功能。
1.评价建构道德形象
为更好地服务于施政目的,政治演说家首先要为自己或所代表的权力集团建构道德形象。以所选演说为例,从语类结构(Martin & Rose, 2003)的态度视角来看, 语篇涵盖的三个评价内容是:
1)对恐怖分子的悲愤及恐怖分子与伊拉克关系的阐释,目的是批判萨达姆统治下伊拉克的恐怖罪恶行径,其中充斥显性否定判定的社会约束词汇,如murder, tyranny, oppression, continue to kill, murderous ideology, extremism, behead civilian hostages, savage acts of violence等等。
2)伊拉克战事取得的良好进程,目的是强调对伊战争是充分受到国际组织帮助的,是正义的。显性肯定判定的词汇包括 significant progress, …restored sovereignty…,…elections that were free and fair, …improving roads and schools….等等。
3)对伊继续战争勾画:我们的好意图,我们的最新进展及其重要性,借此将美国行为美化为人道主义援助, 如…hunting down the terrorists…,…helping Iraqis build a free nation…,…advancing freedom in the Middle East…,…removing a source of violence and instability, and laying the foundation of peace….
通过对态度内容的安排,配合微观层面评价词汇的使用,布什将自身所代表的立场 —对伊战争建构为道德行为,建构了布什本人及其代表的政治集团的道德形象。
2.评价建构权力身份
政治演说中比较突出的评价特征之一是单声的使用比例较大。单声(disengagement)即是断言。从评价对话性角度看,单声是对话性收缩的极端。它是说话人构建权力身份和道德权威的手段,是对其他潜在观点的压制和忽略(White, 2003)。布什文本中单声句的比例很大。文本中句子(clause-complexes)总数为197(简单句121,复合句76),复合小句总数为162。在143个单声句中,100句是单句。于是单声句在单句中的比例为100÷121= 82%,而单声句在复合句小句总数中的比例为 (143-100) ÷162 = 26%。尽管布什的演说发生在半数民众已对伊拉克战争表示强烈反对的时段,文本仍强烈压制其他声音,凸显权威声音,建构权力身份,以助施加意识形态影响。
3.评价建构意识形态
政治演说中通常有态度鲜明的评价词汇,体现评价意义,赞美一致立场,贬抑对立立场。实现这些评价意义的词汇弥散在语篇的各个部分,通过其反复传递的信息强烈地冲击听众/读者,达到意识形态建构的目的。以所选语篇为例,布什文本中有明显的态度意义,可概括为:对萨达姆与恐怖分子的[+强硬],对美国在伊任务[+荣誉],自身身份的构建[+独一无二],态度信息主旨是对伊战争是必须的、光荣的。当传递这些信息的态度词反复出现在文中,特别是断言句中时,听众/读者无法摆脱被左右的状态。例如,布什在建构恐怖分子与萨达姆统治下的伊拉克时,反复使用了不少否定态度词,例如:
(9) The terrorists who attacked us—and the terrorists we face—murder in the name of a totalitarian ideology that hates freedom, rejects tolerance, and despises all dissent.
(31) Some of the violence you see in Iraq is being carried out by ruthless killers who are converging on Iraq to fight the advance of peace and freedom.
文本中否定态度词支配力量很强,听众读者无法挑战(Hoey,2000)。因此文本建构了予话人持有的意识形态意义——萨达姆统治下的伊拉克是极权主义和恐怖主义的化身。该意识形态通过态度词汇的反复使用得以重申。同样,在谈及美国在伊任务时,布什使用了以下句子建构对伊战争的“荣誉”:
(58)I said that America's mission in Iraq is to defeat an enemy and give strength to a friend—a free, representative government that is an ally in the war on terror, and a beacon of hope in a part of the world that is desperate for reform.
(66)We're improving roads and schools and health clinics. (67)We're working to improve basic services like sanitation, electricity, and water. (69) And together with our allies, we'll help the new Iraqi government deliver a better life for its citizens.
4.评价建构听众/读者的立场
为达到更好地控制和影响,政治演说在传递态度信息建构意识形态同时,也在建构听众/读者立场。听众/读者立场建构除使用单声压制其他立场外,主要是通过评价介入中的对话性收缩资源实现。对话性收缩资源归并听众读者,有利于建构演说人理想中的听众/读者立场。以所选文本为例。文本声音使用了32个高度收缩的情态词“will”,用于“我们取得的进步与我们的策略”语义段,出现在 “we will...”, “The Iraqis will...”的结构里构建一致。所有这些 “will”都是布什对将来的预测,多数带有责任型情态意义(= oughtto)。例如:
84)To complete the mission, we will continue to hunt down the terrorists and insurgents.
143)After a constitution is written, the Iraqi people will have a chance to vote on it.
通过使用“will”布什将自己的立场体现为民众立场,留给了听众/读者很小的思考余地,“will”成为建构一致立场的有效手段。此外,文本中还有we see…, we know…等表达,将演说者所假设或认同的情境变为众所周知的事实,以构建一致。如:
(44)We see the nature of the enemy in terrorists who exploded car bombs along a busy shopping street in Baghdad, including one outside a mosque.
(174)We know that if evil is not confronted, it gains in strength and audacity, and returns to strike us again.
5.评价建构予话人与听众的密切关系
为达到更好的控制与影响,演说者除隐性建构听众/读者立场外,也会运用参与策略与读者建立一种密切关系。所选文本中,从宏观语篇角度看,这种参与策略体现在布什对部分民众参与的伊拉克战争中“我们的好意图”和“我们的最新进展及其重要性”的反复描述,例如:
(20)Our mission in Iraq is clear. We're hunting down the terrorists. (21) We're helping Iraqis build a free nation that is an ally in the war on terror.(22) We're advancing freedom in the broader Middle East.(23)We are removing a source of violence and instability, and laying the foundation of peace for our children and our grandchildren.
(46)In the past year, we have made significant progress. One year ago today, we restored sovereignty to the Iraqi people. In January 2005, more than 8 million Iraqi men and women voted in elections that were free and fair, and took time on— and took place on time. We continued our efforts to help them rebuild their country. Rebuilding a country after three decades of tyranny is hard, and rebuilding while at war is even harder. Our progress has been uneven, but progress is being made.
此种细节描写凸显行动的一致性,增强了参与感,是演说人与听众读者建立密切关系的手段之一。
同时,从以上两例可看出,文本声音对密切关系在微观层面的建构主要体现为文本声音对人称指示词的操纵。实际上文本声音用了73例”we”和48例”our”, 所指都是国民,此外还有“The American people” 的使用。这些高度收缩的指示资源主要分布于布什所建构的“对伊战争正义性,美国使命及美国人在伊拉克取得的进展”等语义段中,除能煽动民族情绪外,主要是增强听众的参与感,拉近与听众的距离,与听众建立密切关系,以助取得更多的支持。更多的例子如下:
(23) We're advancing freedom in the broader Middle East.
(155)Our strategy to defend ourselves and spread freedom is working.
(169)The American people do not falter under threat, and we will not allow our future to be determined by car bombers and assassins.
(195)I told the American people that the road ahead would be difficult, and that we would prevail. Well, it has been difficult -- and we are prevailing.
结语
本文通过布什的演说揭示政治演说文体中评价的社会建构功能。评价是演说文体中的一个重要意义成分, 它不但表达了演说者的态度和观点, 同时也在建构某一意识形态,构成了作者操控受众的重要语言手段。政治演说中的评价主要从以下个方面建构其社会作用:建构道德形象、权威声音和意识形态;建构听众/读者的立场以及予话人与听众的密切关系。总而言之,政治语篇中评价通过建构意识形态影响,协调与听众/读者的距离,为最终建构某一社会意识形态的群体服务。
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Analysis of the social construction function of the evaluation
——Taking speeches by Bush as an example
WU Li-dan
(Foreign language college,Guangzhou university,Guangzhou 510421,China)
Abstract: Based on the relevant theories of the function of Evaluation in text, especially the Appraisal theory, this paper explores the social construing effect of the evaluative elements in the political text, and illustrate it with a political speech by president Bush. Through the case analysis, this paper points out that evaluative elements in the political text help to construe moral and autoritative image, a certain ideological state, and at the same time model the relationship between The speaker and the listeners, and ultimately serve the purpose of consturing a certain political or ideological community.
Key words: speeches by Bush; evaluation ;social construction